希臘的“黑暗時代”
  提起希臘，我們的第一反應就是美麗的愛琴海和影響了西方兩千年的希臘文明以及那些瑰麗的希臘神話。可你知道嗎？希臘也有一段“黑暗時代”（Greek Dark Ages），正是在那段Dark Ages中，誕生了歐美歷史上最璀璨的著作之一——荷馬史詩。因此，希臘的黑暗時代又被稱為荷馬時代（Homeric Age）。那是一段怎麽樣的歷史呢，為什麽“黑暗”呢？
  Reading in a single sitting 一口氣讀完這段歷史
  The Greek Dark Age or Ages (1100 BC–800 BC) are terms which have regularly been used to refer to the period of Greek history from the presumed Dorian（多裡安人）invasion and end of the Mycenaean（邁錫尼）Palatial civilization around 1200 BC， to the first signs of the Greek city–states in the 9th century BC. These terms are gradually going out of use， since the former lack of archaeological evidence in a period that was mute in its lack of inions (thus “dark”) has been shown to be an accident of discovery rather than a fact of history.
  The archaeological evidence shows a widespread collapse of Bronze Age（青銅時代）civilization in the eastern Mediterranean（地中海）world at the outset of the period， as the great palaces and cities of the Mycenaean’s were destroyed or abandoned. Around this time， the Hittite（赫梯） civilization suffered serious disruption and cities from Troy（特洛伊）to Gaza（加沙）were destroyed. Following the collapse， fewer and smaller settlements suggest famine and depopulation. In Greece the Linear B writing of the Greek language used by Mycenaean bureaucrats ceases. The decoration on Greek pottery after ca 1100 BC lacks the figurative decoration of Mycenaean ware and is restricted to simpler， generally geometric styles (1000–700 BC). It was previously thought that all contact was lost between mainland Hellenes and foreign powers during this period， yielding little cultural progress or growth; however， artifacts from excavations show that significant cultural and trade links with the east， particularly the Levant coast， developed from 900 BC onwards， and evidence has emerged of the new presence of Hellenes in sub–Mycenaean Cyprus and on the Syrian coast at Al Mina.
  With the collapse of the palatial centres， no more monumental stone buildings were built and the practice of wall painting may have ceased; writing in the Linear B ceased， vital trade links were lost， and towns and villages were abandoned. The population of Greece was reduced， and the world of organized state armies， kings， officials， and redistributive systems that offered security to individuals disappeared. Most of the information about the period comes from burial sites and the grave goods contained within them. To what extent the earliest Greek literary sources， Homeric epics (8th–7th century) and Hesiod’s（赫西奧德，希臘詩人）Works and Days (7th century) describe life in the 9th–8th centuries remains a matter of considerable debate.
  The fragmented， localized and autonomous cultures of reduced complexity are noted for such diversity of their material cultures in pottery styles (conservative in Athens， eclectic at Knossos)， burial practices and settlement structures， that generalizations about a“Dark Age society”are misleading. Tholos tombs are found in early Iron Age Thessaly and in Crete but not in general elsewhere， and cremation is the dominant rite in Attica（阿提卡，古希臘的一個地方）， but nearby in the Argolid it was inhumation. Some former sites of Mycenaean palaces， such as Argos（阿哥斯）or Knossos（克諾索斯）， continued to be occupied; other sites’ experienceing an expansive“boom time”of a generation or two before they were abandoned， James Whitley has associated with the“Big–man social organization”， based on personal charisma and inherently unstable: he interprets Lefkandi in this light.
  Some regions in Greece， such as Attica， Euboea（埃維厄島）and central Crete（克裡特島）， recovered economically from these events faster than others， but life for the poorest Greeks would have remained relatively unchanged as it had done for centuries. There was still farming， weaving， metalworking and potting in this time， albeit at a lower level of output and for local use in local styles. Some technical innovations were introduced around 1050 BC with the start of the Proto–geometric style (1050–900 BC)， such as the superior pottery technology， which resulted in a faster potter’s wheel for superior vase shapes and the use of a compass to draw perfect circles and semicircles for decoration. Better glazes were achieved by higher temperature firing of clay. However， the overall trend was toward simpler， less intricate pieces and fewer resources being devoted to the creation of beautiful art.
  During this time the smelting of iron was learnt from Cyprus（塞浦路斯）and the Levant， exploited and improved upon， using local deposits of iron ore previously ignored by the Mycenaeans: edged weapons were now within reach of less elite warriors. Though the universal use of iron was one shared feature among Dark Age settlements， it is still uncertain when the forged iron weapons and armour achieved superior strength to those that had been previously cast and hammered from bronze. From 1050 BC many small local iron industries appeared， and by 900 almost all weapons in grave goods were made of iron.
  The distribution of the Ionic Greek dialect in historic times indicates early movement from the mainland of Greece to the Anatolian coast to such sites as Miletus（米利都）， Ephesus（以弗所）， and Colophon， perhaps as early as 1000 BC， though the contemporaneous evidence is scanty. In Cyprus some archaeological sites begin to show identifiably Greek ceramics， a colony of Euboean（埃維亞島）Greeks was established at Al Mina on the Syrian（敘利亞）coast， and a reviving Aegean（愛琴海）Greek network of exchange can be detected from 10th–century Attic Proto–geometic pottery found in Crete and at Samos（薩摩斯）， off the coast of Asia Minor（小亞細亞）.
  從約公元前1200年至公元前800年，多利安人入侵、邁錫尼文明滅亡、最早的希臘城邦開始崛起、荷馬史詩等最早的希臘文寫作出現……這就是“黑暗時期”的大致輪廓。在這一時期，希臘的文明世界開始衰落，邁錫尼人雄偉的宮殿被摧毀或是遺棄，希臘語停止被書寫，陶器只有簡單的幾何裝飾。人口急劇減少，國際貿易逐漸喪失，與其他文明的聯絡也消失了，導致社會文化等的全面停滯。希臘先民在經濟、文化的“黑暗”中度過了整整400年，等待著希臘城邦崛起的曙光。
  invasion：入侵，侵略
  Palatial：壯麗的、宮殿般的
  archaeological：考古學的
  bureaucrat：官僚、官僚主義者
  artifact：手工藝品
  monumental：不朽的、紀念碑的
  tholos：圓屋、圓形建築
  charisma：魅力、非凡領導力
  pottery：陶器、製陶術
  intricate：複雜的、糾纏的
  armour：盔甲、護面
  contemporaneous：同時期的
  Key Words in History 歷史關鍵詞
  1．Homer荷馬
  In the Western classical tradition Homer is the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey， and is revered as the greatest ancient Greek epic poet. These epics are at the beginning of the Western canon of literature， and have had an enormous influence on the history of literature.
  When he lived is controversial. Herodotus estimates that Homer lived 400 years before Herodotus’ own time， which would place him at around 850 BC; while other ancient sources claim that he lived much nearer to the supposed time of the Trojan War， in the early 12th Century BC.
  For modern scholars“the date of Homer”refers not to an individual， but to period when the epics were created. The formative influence played by the Homeric epics in shaping Greek culture was widely recognized， and Homer was described as the teacher of Greece.
  2．Iliad伊利亞特
  The Iliad is an epic poem in dactylic hexameters， traditionally attributed to Homer. Set in the Trojan War， the ten–year siege of Ilium by a coalition of Greek states， it tells of the battles and events during the weeks of a quarrel between King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles. Although the story covers only a few weeks in the final year of the war， the Iliad mentions or alludes to many of the Greek legends about the siege. Along with the Odyssey， also attributed to Homer， the Iliad is among the oldest extant works of Western literature， and its written version is usually dated to around the eighth century BC. The Iliad contains over 15，000 lines， and is written in Homeric Greek， a literary amalgam of Ionic Greek with other dialects.
  3．Odyssey奧德賽
  The Odyssey is one of the two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is， in part， a sequel to the Iliad， the other work traditionally ascribed to Homer. The poem is fundamental to the modern Western canon. Indeed it is the second–the Iliad being the first–extant work of Western literature. It was probably composed near the end of the 8th century BC， somewhere in Ionia， the Greek–speaking coastal region of what is now Turkey.
  The poem mainly centers on the Greek hero Odysseus (or Ulysses， as he was known in Roman myths) and his long journey home following the fall of Troy. It takes Odysseus ten years to reach Ithaca after the ten–year Trojan War. In his absence， it is assumed he has died， and his wife Penelope and son Telemachus must deal with a group of unruly suitors， the Mnesteres or Proci， competing for Penelope’s hand in marriage.
  It continues to be read in the Homeric Greek and translated into modern languages around the world. The original poem was composed in an oral tradition by an aoidos (epic poet/singer)， perhaps a rhapsode (professional performer)， and was more likely intended to be sung than read. The details of the ancient oral performance， and the story’s conversion to a written work inspire continual debate among scholars. The Odyssey was written in a regionless poetic dialect of Greek and comprises 12，110 lines of dactylic hexameter. Among the most impressive elements of the text are its non–linear plot， and that events seem to depend as much on the choices made by women and serfs as on the actions of fighting men. In the English language as well as many others， the word odyssey has come to refer to an epic voyage.
  Background Knowledge 背景知識補充
  “黑暗時代”開始於邁錫尼文明的沒落。而邁錫尼文明的衰落，在時間上恰恰與赫梯文明、埃及文明的衰落相對應，其原因可能為某個裝備有鐵兵器的海上民族的入侵。當多利安人南下希臘的時候，他們也裝備有更為先進的鐵兵器，可以輕易地將已然衰弱的邁錫尼人逐走。於是，這些武器先進，但是文明欠發達的民族，開創了希臘的黑暗時代。
  這一歷史時期之所以被稱為“黑暗”主要有兩個原因：黑暗，最明顯的理由，是因為我們沒有任何關於他們的史料和記錄，我們找不到這些記錄，因此稱之為黑暗。另一個理由是，黑暗從悲觀的角度來說就是不好的、壞的。這是一個艱難的時代，一個困苦的時代，一個不幸的時代，一個悲慘的時代，這就是黑暗時代。黑暗時代緊隨著邁錫尼文明的隕落到來，這段歷史的部分內容，是邁錫尼文明與地中海地區源遠流長的關系，尤其是與東部港口城市的聯系切斷了。不管是政治、經濟還是文化，希臘成了一個孤島。
  現在，我們只能從考古學發現以及《荷馬史詩》中去追尋那一時期的歷史蹤跡。人們相信，荷馬史詩中含有一些黑暗時代口頭傳承下來的傳統，但是荷馬作品的歷史真實性仍廣為爭論。因為荷馬史詩中所塑造的大多為半人半神的英雄（Hero)，是介於人和神（God)之間的一種生物。所以，黑暗時代的真相到底如何，還有待歷史學家和考古學家進一步研究。
  愛琴文明
  愛琴文明是希臘及愛琴地區史前文明的總稱。它曾被稱為“邁錫尼文明”，因為這一文明的存在被海因裡希·施裡曼對邁錫尼始於1876年的發掘而進入人們的視野。然而，後續的發現證明邁錫尼在愛琴文明的早期（甚至任何時期）並不佔中心的地位，因而後來更多地使用更為一般的地理名稱來命名這個文明。
  Reading in a single sitting 一口氣讀完這段歷史
  The missing Minoans: 20th–15th century BC
  It is astonishing that history should lose all track of a civilization which lasts for six centuries， makes superb ceramics and metalwork， trades extensively over a wide region， and houses its rulers in palaces elaborately decorated with superb fresco paintings. Yet this has been the case with the Minoans in Crete， until the excavation of Knossos.
  We still know little more about them than is suggested by Minoan art and artefacts. It is typical that the name they have been given derives from a figure of myth rather than history–Minos， the legendary king of Crete whose pet creature is the Minotaur， a monster with the body of a man and the head of a bull which feeds on young human flesh.
  Three very similar palaces have been excavated in Crete from the Minoan period–at Knossos， Mallia and Phaistos. Built from around 2000 BC， each is constructed round a large public courtyard; each has provision for the storage of large quantities of grain; each is believed to be the administrative centre for a large local population. The number at Knossos has been variably estimated as between 15，000 and 50，000 people.
  Administrative records and accounts are kept on clay tablets in a as yet undeciphered (it is known as Linear A). Archaeological discoveries reveal that trade is carried on round the entire Mediterranean coast from Sicily in the west to Egypt in the southeast.
  Overseas there are outposts of Minoan culture. It is not known whether they are colonies or more in the nature of trading partners， influenced by the culture of Crete. Notable among them is the city of Akrotiri， on the island of Thera. Its houses， apparently those of rich merchants， have survived with their frescoes intact. Several of the houses stand to a height of three storeys， with their floors still in place.
  The reason for their preservation is the eruption of the island’s volcano in about 1525 BC. Like Pompeii a millennium and a half later， Akrotiri is pickled in volcanic ash.
  Defensive walls are notably absent in Minoan Crete， as also are paintings of warfare. This seems to have been a peaceful as well as a prosperous society. But its end is violent. In about 1425 BC all the towns and palaces of Crete， except Knossos itself， are destroyed by fire.
  It is not known whether this is a natural disaster， which gives Greeks from the mainland their chance， or whether Greek invaders destroy Minoan Crete–keeping only the main palace for their own use. But it is certain that the next generation of rulers introduce the culture of mainland Mycenae， and they keep their accounts in the Mycenaean –Linear B. It seems probable that a Mycenaean invasion ends Minoan civilization.
  The first Greek civilization: from the 16th century BC
  The discovery that Linear B is a Greek places Mycenae at the head of the story of Greek civilization. Its right to this place of honour is reinforced in legend and literature. The supposed occupants of the Mycenaean palaces are the heroes of Homer’s Iliad.
  Archaeology reveals the rulers of these early Greeks to have been as proud and warlike as Homer suggests.
  Their fortress palaces are protected by walls of stone blocks， so large that only giants would seem capable of heaving them into place. This style of architecture has been appropriately named Cyclopean， after the Cyclopes (a race of one–eyed giants encountered by Odysseus in the Odyssey). The walls at Tiryns， said in Greek legend to have built by the Cyclopes for the legendary king Proteus， provide the most striking example.
  At Mycenae it is the gateway through the walls which proclaims power， with two great lions standing above the massive lintel.
  Royal burials at Mycenae add to the impression of a powerful military society. The tombs of the 16th century (known as ‘shaft graves’because the burial is at the bottom of a deep shaft) contain a profusion of bronze swords and daggers， of a kind new to the region， together with much gold treasure， including death masks of the kings.
  By the 14th century the graves themselves become more in keeping with the status of their occupants， with the development of the tholos or ‘beehive’style of tomb. The most impressive is the so–called Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae， with its high domed inner chamber (independently pioneered in Neolithic western Europe 2500 years previously).
  The earliest known suit of armour comes from a Mycenaean tomb， at Dendra. The helmet is a pointed cap， cunningly shaped from slices of boar’s tusk. Bronze cheek flaps are suspended from it， reaching down to a complete circle of bronze around the neck. Curving sheets of bronze cover the shoulders. Beneath them there is a breast plate， and then three more circles of bronze plate， suspended one from the other， to form a semi–flexible skirt down to the thighs. Greaves， or shinpads of bronze， complete the armour.
  The Mycenaean warrior’s weapons are a bronze sword and a bronze–tipped spear. His shield is of stiff leather on a wooden frame. Similar weapons are used， several centuries later， by the Greek hoplites.
  Trade and conquest: 13th–12th century BC
  By the 13th century Mycenaean rulers control to varying degrees the whole of the Peloponnese， together with the eastern side of mainland Greece as far north as Mount Olympus， the large islands of Crete and Rhodes and many smaller islands. This is indeed a civilization which spreads around and through most of the Aegean.
  Mycenaeans trade the length of the Mediterranean， from the traditional markets of the eastern coasts to new ones as far away as Spain in the west. They also have long–range trading contacts with Neolithic societies in the interior of Europe.
  In the latter half of the 13th century， according to well–established oral tradition， the rulers of Mycenaean Greece combine forces to assault a rich city on the other side of the Aegean Sea. The city is Troy. Some four centuries later the oral tradition will be written down as the Iliad.
  In Homer’s poem it takes many years before Troy is finally subdued. If there is truth in this， the war perhaps fatally weakens the Greeks. Certainly archaeology reveals that the successful Mycenaean civilization comes to an abrupt end not very much later–in about 1200 BC.
  The sudden destruction of Mycenaean palaces in Greece is part of a wider pattern of chaos in the eastern Mediterranean. As far away as Egypt， the pharaohs fight off invasion by raiders whom they describe as people“from the sea”. It is a mystery， then as now， exactly where these predators come from.
  The most likely answer is the southern and western coasts of Anatolia. The rulers of Anatolia， the Hittites， are among their victims. So also are the communities of the eastern Mediterranean， where some of the Sea Peoples settle–to become known as the Philistines.
  Doric and Ionic: from the 12th century BC
  In muted form Mycenaean Greece survives this first assault. But it suffers a final blow later in the 12th century at the hands of the Dorians–northern tribesmen， as yet uncivilized， who speak the Doric dialect of Greek. The Dorians move south from Macedonia and roam through the Peloponnese. They have the advantage of iron technology， which helps them to overwhelm the Bronze Age Mycenaeans.
  The Dorian incursion plunges Greece into a period usually referred to as a dark age. But Dorian military traditions survive to play a profound part in the heyday of classical Greece. The ruthlessly efficient Spartans will claim the Dorians as their ancestors， and model themselves upon them.
  The rival tradition in classical Greece is linked with Athens， an outpost of Mycenaean culture. Athens successfully resists the Dorians and becomes something of a place of refuge for those fleeing the invaders.
  With the encouragement of Athens， from about 900 BC， non–Dorian Greeks migrate to form colonies on the west coast of Anatolia. These colonies eventually merge to form Ionia (Ionic is the dialect spoken by the Athenians and by many other Greek tribes). In subsequent centuries Ionia， with Athens， becomes a cradle of the classical Greek civilization. So there is a genuine continuity from Mycenae. It is reflected in the romantic idea of Mycenaean Greeks expressed by Homer–himself probably a native of Ionia.
  存在了至少三千多年的愛琴文明在多大程度上可以被認為是持續的？考古發掘提供了許多證據以回答這一問題。愛琴文明的根可以追溯到漫長的原始新石器時代，這一時期代表為克諾索斯將近6米厚的地層，它包含了石器以及手工製作打磨的器皿的碎片，顯示了從底層到頂端持續的技術發展。
  米諾斯文明層可能比希沙立克（Hissarlik）的最底層年代更早。它的結束標志為對陶器上白色充填的鋸齒狀裝飾的引進，還發現了以其單色顏料對其主題的複製品。在這一階段的結束後，緊接著的是青銅時代的開端以及米諾斯文明的第一階段。因此，對於分層的仔細觀察可以辨認出另外八個階段，每一個階段都標志有陶器風格的重要進步。這些階段佔據了整個青銅時代，而後者的終結，標志為鐵這一更為先進的材料的引入，也宣告了愛琴時代的落幕。
  astonishing：使人吃驚的，驚人的
  eruption：噴發， 爆發
  prosperous：普羅斯珀勒斯
  civilization：文明， 文化
  military：軍事的， 軍用的; 軍人的；武裝的
  bronze：青銅，深紅棕色的，青銅色的
  migrate：遷移; 移往
  Key Words in History 歷史關鍵詞
  1．Commerce商業
  Commerce was practiced to some extent in very early times， as is proved by the distribution of Melian obsidian throughout the Aegean area. We find Cretan vessels exported to Melos， Egypt and the Greek mainland. After 1600 B.C.E. there are indications of very close commerce with Egypt， and Aegean things made their way along the coasts of the Mediterranean. No traces of currency have been found， unless certain axeheads， too slight for practical use， were used for this purpose. The Aegean written documents found outside the area， have not yet proved to be epistolary (letter writing) correspondence with other countries. Representations of ships are not common， but several have been observed on Aegean gems， gem–sealings and vases. They are vessels of low free–board， with masts. Their familiarity with the sea has been proven by the free use of marine motifs in their decorating.
  Later in the twentieth century， discoveries of sunken trading vessels along the coasts have brought to the forefront an enormous amount of new information regarding the culture.
  2．The Minoan Civilization米諾斯文明
  The origin of the Minoans is unknown， but by 1600 BC they dominated the Aegean region. They lived on Crete from about 2500 BC to 1400 BC， when they were conquered by Mycenaeans from the Greek mainland. Their prosperity depended upon seafaring and trade， especially with the Middle East and with Egypt.
  In 1900 the British archaeologist Arthur Evans began excavations at Knossos that eventually revealed a great palace that covered 5.5 acres (2.2 hectares). There were no surrounding walls at Knossos， as in the Mycenaean cities. The palace and the city had been protected by a powerful navy. Evans found storerooms with huge oil jars still in place， elaborate bathrooms， ventilation and drainage systems， and waste disposal chutes. The pottery was as fine as porcelain. Paintings on walls and pottery showed the dress of the women， with puffed sleeves and flounced skirts. The palace of Knossos was destroyed during the 14th century BC.
  The Minoans worshiped a mother goddess， whose symbol was the double–bladed ax， called a labrys. The name of the symbol and the maze of rooms in the palace recall the story of the labyrinth. According to Greek mythology， Daedalus built a labyrinth for Minos to house the man–eating Minotaur， half man and half bull. Painted on the palace walls are pictures of acrobats vaulting over the backs of bulls. This sport may have given rise to the myth. After the Greeks conquered the Minoans they absorbed such stories into their mythology.
  3．Mycenae Cities邁錫尼城邦
  In 1876 Heinrich Schliemann began excavating Mycenae. Still visible today is the acropolis， with its broken stone walls and Lion Gate. Within the walls Schliemann uncovered the graves of bodies covered with gold masks， breastplates， armbands， and girdles. In the graves of the women were golden diadems， golden laurel leaves， and exquisite ornaments shaped like animals， flowers， butterflies， and cuttlefish.
  Schliemann thought he had found the burial place of Agamemnon and his followers. Later study proved the bodies belonged to a period 400 years earlier than the Trojan War. Rulers of another dynasty were buried outside the walls in strange beehive tombs.
  Other great cities of the same period were Pylos， the legendary capital of King Nestor， and Tiryns. It is not known to what extent Mycenae controlled other centers of the Achaean civilization. It is known that Mycenaean trade extended to Sicily， Egypt， Palestine， Troy， Cyprus， and Macedonia.
  Background Knowledge 背景知識補充
  愛琴文明是指公元前20世紀至公元前12世紀間的愛琴海域的上古文明。它是指公元前20世紀至前12世紀存在於地中海東部的愛琴海島、希臘半島及小亞細亞西部的歐洲青銅時代的文明，因圍繞愛琴海域而得名。在希臘文明之前，是最早的歐洲文明，是西方文明的源泉。主要包括米諾斯文明和邁錫尼文明兩大階段，前後相繼。有興旺的農業和海上貿易，宮室建築及繪畫藝術均很發達，是世界古代文明的一個重要代表。公元前2000年左右，愛琴文明發祥於克裡特島，後來文明中心移至希臘半島，出現邁錫尼文明。克裡特島文明和邁錫尼文明合稱愛琴文明，歷史約800年，它是古希臘文明的開端。
  現在這裡所稱的“愛琴地區”已經擴大到了包括克裡特和塞浦路斯在內的愛琴海群島、希臘半島、愛奧尼亞諸島、西安那托利亞。它的分支可以延伸到西地中海地區，西西裡、意大利、撒丁那、西班牙以及東地中海地區，包括敘利亞和埃及。而對於昔蘭尼卡地區，還需更多的了解。
  希波戰爭
  希波戰爭是古代波斯帝國為了擴張版圖而入侵希臘的戰爭，戰爭以希臘獲勝，波斯戰敗而告結束。這次戰爭對東西方經濟與文化的影響遠大過戰爭本身。
  Reading in a single sitting 一口氣讀完這段歷史
  The Greco–Persian Wars (also often called the Persian Wars) were a series of conflicts between the Achaemenid Empire of Persia and city–states of the Hellenic world that started in 499 BC and lasted until 449 BC. The collision between the fractious political world of the Greeks and the enormous empire of the Persians began when Cyrus the Great conquered Ionia in 547 BC. Struggling to rule the independent–minded cities of Ionia， the Persians appointed tyrants to rule each of them. This would prove the source of much trouble for both Greeks and Persians alike.
  In 499 BC， the then tyrant of Miletus， Aristagoras， embarked on an expedition to conquer the island of Naxos， with Persian support; however， the expedition was a debacle， and pre–empting his dismissal， Aristagoras incited all of Hellenic Asia Minor into rebellion against the Persians. This was the beginning of the Ionian Revolt， which would last until 493 BC， progressively drawing more regions of Asia Minor into the conflict. Aristagoras secured military support from Athens and Eretria， and in 498 BC， these forces helped to capture and burn the Persian regional capital of Sardis. The Persian king Darius the Great vowed to have revenge on Athens and Eretria for this act. The revolt continued， with the two sides effectively stalemated throughout 497BC–495 BC. In 494 BC， the Persians regrouped， and attacked the epicentre of the revolt in Miletus. At the Battle of Lade， the Ionians suffered a decisive defeat， and the rebellion collapsed， with the final members being stamped out the following year.
  Seeking to secure his empire from further revolts， and from the interference of the mainland Greeks， Darius embarked on a scheme to conquer Greece， and to punish Athens and Eretria for burning Sardis. The first Persian invasion of Greece began in 492 BC， with the Persian general Mardonius conquering Thrace and Macedon before several mishaps forced an early end to the campaign. In 490 BC a second force was sent to Greece， this time across the Aegean Sea， under the command of Datis and Artaphernes. This expedition subjugated the Cyclades， before besieging， capturing and razing Eretria. However， while on route to attack Athens， the Persian force was decisively defeated by the Athenians at the Battle of Marathon， ending Persian efforts for the time being. Darius then began to plan the complete the conquest of Greece， but died in 486 BC and responsibility for the conquest passed to his son Xerxes I. In 480 BC， Xerxes personally led the second Persian invasion of Greece with one of the largest ancient armies ever assembled. Victory over the“Allied”Greek states (led by Sparta and Athens) at the Battle of Thermopylae allowed the Persians to overrun most of Greece. However， while seeking to destroy the Allied fleet， the Persians suffered a severe defeat at the Battle of Salamis. The following year， the Allies went on the offensive， defeating the Persian army at the Battle of Plataea， and ending the invasion of Greece.
  The Allies followed up their success by destroying the rest of the Persian fleet at the Battle of Mycale， before expelling Persian garrisons from Sestos (479 BC) and Byzantium (478 BC). The actions of the general Pausanias at the siege of Byzantium alienated many of the Greek states from the Spartans， and the anti–Persian alliance was therefore reconstituted around Athenian leadership， as the so–called Delian League. The Delian League continued to campaign against Persia for the next three decades， beginning with the expulsion of the remaining Persian garrisons from Europe. At the Battle of the Eurymedon in 466 BC， the League won a double victory that finally secured freedom for the cities of Ionia. However， the League’s involvement in an Egyptian revolt (from 460BC–454 BC) resulted in a disastrous defeat and a further campaigning was suspended. A fleet was sent to Cyprus in 451 BC， but achieved little， and when it withdrew， the Greco–Persian Wars drew to a quiet end. Some historical sources suggest the end of hostilities was marked by a peace treaty between Athens and Persia， the so–called Peace of Callias.
  前479年，波斯王派大將統率50000大軍再度進攻希臘，這次特米斯托克利斯再次使用空城計移師海面。而斯巴達則統率伯羅奔尼撒半島聯軍共三萬與波斯陸軍於普拉提亞進行決戰，並擊斃了波斯大將，結果波斯軍大敗，隻得再次撤回東方。該年，以雅典為首的希臘海軍反攻波斯，攻進小亞細亞，使小亞細亞諸希臘城邦脫離波斯的統治。公元前478年，希波戰爭以雙方簽訂卡裡阿斯和約而告結束，波斯帝國從此承認小亞細亞之希臘城邦的獨立地位，並且將其軍隊撤出愛琴海與黑海地區。
  conflict　戰鬥，鬥爭
  collision　碰撞，衝突，抵觸
  embark　乘船，裝載，從事
  progressively　前進地，日益增加地，逐漸地
  pevolt　造反，起義，反抗，違抗，起義，叛亂
  conquer　攻克，征服
  command　命令，指揮，控制
  alliance　聯盟，同盟
  Key Words in History 歷史關鍵詞
  1．Battle of Marathon馬拉松戰役
  The Persian fleet next headed south down the coast of Attica， landing at the bay of Marathon， roughly 25 miles (40 km) from Athens[80] Under the guidance of Miltiades， the general with the greatest experience of fighting the Persians， the Athenian army marched to block the two exits from the plain of Marathon. Stalemate ensued for five days， before the Athenians (for reasons that are unclear) decided to attack the Persians. Despite the numerical advantage of the Persians， the hoplites proved devastatingly effective against the more lightly armed Persian infantry， routing the wings before turning in on the centre of the Persian line. The remnants of the Persian army fled to their ships and left the battle. Herodotus records that 6，400 Persian bodies were counted on the battlefield; the Athenians lost only 192 men.
  As soon as the Persian survivors had put to sea， the Athenians marched as quickly as possible to Athens.They arrived in time to prevent Artaphernes from securing a landing in Athens. Seeing his opportunity lost， Artaphernes ended the year’s campaign and returned to Asia.
  The Battle of Marathon was a watershed in the Greco–Persian wars， showing the Greeks that the Persians could be beaten. It also highlighted the superiority of the more heavily armoured Greek hoplites， and showed their potential when used wisely. The Battle of Marathon is perhaps now more famous as the inspiration for the Marathon race.
  2．Battle of Salamis薩拉米斯戰役
  Victory at Thermopylae meant that all Boeotia fell to Xerxes; and left Attica open to invasion. The remaining population of Athens was evacuated， with the aid of the Allied fleet， to Salamis. The Peloponnesian Allies began to prepare a defensive line across the Isthmus of Corinth， building a wall， and demolishing the road from Megara， abandoning Athens to the Persians. Athens thus fell to the Persians; the small number of Athenians who had barricaded themselves on the Acropolis were eventually defeated， and Xerxes then ordered Athens to be razed.
  The Persians had now captured most of Greece， but Xerxes had perhaps not expected such defiance; his priority was now to complete the war as quickly as possible. If Xerxes could destroy the Allied navy， he would be in a strong position to force an Allied surrender;conversely by avoiding destruction， or as Themistocles hoped， by destroying the Persian fleet， the Allies could prevent conquest from being completed.The Allied fleet thus remained off the coast of Salamis into September， despite the imminent arrival of the Persians. Even after Athens fell， the Allied fleet remained off the coast of Salamis， trying to lure the Persian fleet to battle. Partly because of deception by Themistocles， the navies met in the cramped Straits of Salamis.There， the Persian numbers became a hindrance， as ships struggled to maneuver and became disorganised. Seizing the opportunity， the Allied fleet attacked， and scored a decisive victory， sinking or capturing at least 200 Persian ships， therefore ensuring the safety of the Peloponnessus.
  According to Herodotus， after the loss of the battle Xerxes attempted to build a causeway across the channel to attack the Athenian evacuees on Salamis， but this project was soon abandoned. With the Persians’ naval superiority removed， Xerxes feared that the Allies might sail to the Hellespont and destroy the pontoon bridges. His general Mardonius volunteered to remain in Greece and complete the conquest with a hand–picked group of troops， while Xerxes retreated to Asia with the bulk of the army. Mardonius over–wintered in Boeotia and Thessaly; the Athenians were thus able to return to their burnt–out city for the winter.
  3．Battles of Plataea and Mycale普拉提亞戰役
  Over the winter， there was some tension between the Allies. In particular， the Athenians， who were not protected by the Isthmus， but whose fleet was the key to the security of the Peloponnesus， felt hard done by， and refused to join the Allied navy in Spring. Mardonius remained in Thessaly， knowing an attack on the Isthmus was pointless， while the Allies refused to send an army outside the Peloponessus.Mardonius moved to break the stalemate， by offering peace to the Athenians， using Alexander I of Macedon as an intermediate. The Athenians made sure that a Spartan delegation was on hand to hear the offer， but rejected it. Athens was thus evacuated again， and the Persians marched south and re–took possession of it. Mardonius now repeated his offer of peace to the Athenian refugees on Salamis. Athens， with Megara and Plataea， sent emissaries to Sparta demanding assistance， and threatening to accept the Persian terms if they were not aided. In response， the Spartans summonded a large army from the Peloponnese cities and marched to meet the Persians.
  When Mardonius heard the Allied army was on the march， he retreated into Boeotia， near Plataea， trying to draw the Allies into open terrain where he could use his cavalry. The Allied army， under the command of the regent Pausanias， stayed on high ground above Plataea to protect themselves against such tactics. After several days of maneuver and stalemate， Pausanias ordered a night–time retreat towards the Allies’ original positions. This maneuver went awry， leaving the Athenians， and Spartans and Tegeans isolated on separate hills， with the other contingents scattered further away near Plataea. Seeing that the Persians might never have a better opportunity to attack， Mardonius ordered his whole army forward. However， the Persian infantry proved no match for the heavily armoured Greek hoplites， and the Spartans broke through to Mardonius’s bodyguard and killed him. After this the Persian force dissolved in rout; 40，000 troops managed to escape via the road to Thessaly， but the rest fled to the Persian camp where they were trapped and slaughtered by the Greeks， finalising the Greek victory.
  Herodotus recounts that， on the afternoon of the Battle of Plataea， a rumour of their victory at that battle reached the Allies’ navy， at that time off the coast of Mount Mycale in Ionia. Their morale boosted， the Allied marines fought and won a decisive victory at the Battle of Mycale that same day， destroying the remnants of the Persian fleet， crippling Xerxes’ sea power， and marking the ascendancy of the Greek fleet. Whilst many modern historians doubt that Mycale took place on the same day as Plataea， the battle may well only have occurred once the Allies received news of the events unfolding in Greece.
  Background Knowledge 背景知識補充
  希波戰爭是人類歷史文化的一次前所未有的大融合，其影響遠遠超出波斯、希臘的范圍。它大大加強了東西方文化交流，促進了東西方文化發展和科學、藝術的進步，打破了東西方幾乎完全隔絕的局面，從而推動了人類社會發展進步。這是希波戰爭最重要的影響。
  希臘在希波戰爭中取勝，使得西方世界的歷史中心由兩河流域向地中海地區推移，希臘文明得以保存並發揚光大，成為日後西方文明的基礎。而且希臘勝利也確保了希臘諸城邦的獨立及安全，使得希臘繼續稱霸東地中海數百年。 斯巴達：對斯巴達來說，大量戰利品的流入和與外界接觸，使斯巴達原有的經濟和樸素生活失去平衡，原已平息的矛盾重新出現，斯巴達在希臘城邦中的軍事統帥地位受到來自雅典的挑戰。
  雅典：對雅典來說，希波戰爭爆發後，迅速轉移了雅典內部平民和貴族之間的矛盾。雅典海戰的勝利，一方面削弱了貴族所依賴的陸軍的社會作用；另一方面提高了在海軍中服役的第四等級公民的政治地位和經濟地位，使民主力量得以壯大。戰爭後期雅典霸權的建立及奴隸製經濟的發展，則保障了民主制度的有效實施。因此，希波戰爭及希臘方面的勝利，為雅典民主政治的繁榮創造了十分有利的客觀條件。
  波斯在這場戰爭裡戰敗，使其對外擴張的氣焰受挫，並逐漸走向衰落，最後被馬其頓的亞歷山大大帝所滅。
  希臘城邦的衰落
  以雅典和斯巴達為代表的希臘城邦，在公元前5世紀經歷了繁榮時期，從公元前4世紀起逐漸衰落。由於公民中貧富分化加劇，公民權與土地的關系日趨松弛，公民集體內部矛盾增加，公民兵製開始瓦解。公元前338年馬其頓國王亞歷山大大帝的征服以及公元前323至前30年的希臘化時代，許多國王對希臘的奴役，剝奪了希臘絕大多數城邦的政治獨立，瓦解了原有的公民集體，使這些城邦演變成在龐大的中央集權管轄下的地方自治單位。
  Reading in a single sitting 一口氣讀完這段歷史
  If the Persian Wars were the great epic of Greek history， the century of conflict between Greek poleis from 431 to 338 B.C.E. was its great tragedy. During this time， the Greeks wasted their energies fighting one another and left the way open for an outside power， Macedon， to come in and take over. There were three main lines of development that led to the final fall of the polis in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E.
  Economic and military changes
  First of all， the Persian wars exposed the Greeks to a wider world of trade as well as different military tactics that could threaten the powerful， but largely immobile hoplite phalanx. Athens especially adapted to these new challenges， relying more on trade， foreign grain， and a money economy， along with the navy and Long Walls to protect its empire. Growing fear of Athens and the resulting Peloponnesian War would force other poleis to adapt in order to be able to compete with Athens. Sparta， in particular， built a navy and， after the Peloponnesian War， relied increasingly on mercenaries to bolster its power. In addition， lightly armed troops known as peltasts were used to give Greek armies more flexibility.
  As a result， more and more Greeks were drawn from the countryside by the lure of riches to be made as traders and mercenaries. Trade and a money economy grew in importance compared to the small family farms that had previously been the mainstay of the polis’ economy. Also， warfare became professional， sophisticated， chronic， and expensive. This contrasted sharply with the previous style of cheap， amateur， and less destructive warfare waged by hoplite farmers over the last 250 years. Rising taxes to support this new style of warfare put increasing burdens on the farmer hoplites who started to decline economically， militarily， and politically. Gradually， large estates worked by tenant farmers or slaves would replace the small family owned farms worked by independent farmers. And once these farmers， the backbone of the traditional polis， went into decline， so did the polis itself. The Greeks were still a dynamic people， but the polis itself was starting to decay.
  Continuing warfare after the Peloponnesian War (404–355 B.C.E.)
  We have already seen in detail how Sparta defeated Athens in the Peloponnesian War. However， Sparta’s victory hardly meant peace for the Greek world. Many of Athens’ subjects had joined Sparta， believing they would be free to run their own lives. Instead， the Spartans installed pro–Spartan oligarchies that were watched over by Spartan governors and garrisons in many poleis. Sparta also failed to turn over Ionia to Persia in return for its aid against Athens. Naturally， such high–handed actions angered both Persia and most other Greeks. Leading the way were the Athenians who replaced the Spartan backed and repressive oligarchy of The Thirty with a new democracy.
  All this led to the Corinthian War (395–387 B.C.E.). The Spartans in Ionia could more than hold their own against the Persian forces there. However， what Persian armies could not accomplish， Persian gold could by funding Athens， Thebes， and Corinth against Sparta， which drew the Spartan forces out of Ionia and back to Greece. Persia also gave Athens a navy that crushed the Spartan fleet， sailed to Athens， and oversaw the rebuilding of the Long Walls. Sparta’s gains from the Peloponnesian War were quickly slipping away.
  Faced with such a powerful coalition， Sparta made peace with Persia， handing Ionia over in return for help against the other Greeks. In 387 B.C.E. Persia dictated a treaty called the King’s Peace to all the Greeks， taking Ionia for itself， and putting its ally Sparta back on top of the Greek world. The irony of it all was that the Persians， without striking a blow， had accomplished what Xerxes’ huge army had failed to do a century before.
  Naturally， the Greeks， did not abide by this decision for long， with Thebes and Athens leading the resistance against Sparta. The Thebans drove the Spartan garrison from their citadel and formed the Boeotian League in direct defiance of Sparta and the King’s Peace. At Leuctra in 37l B.C.Ethe Theban general， Epaminondas stacked one flank of his phalanx 50 ranks deep， crushed the opposing Spartan wing， and then rolled up the rest of their army. A similar battle at Mantinea nine years later destroyed the mystique of Spartan invincibility， and with it most of Sparta’s power and influence. Unfortunately for Thebes， Epaminondas was killed， and with him died Thebes’ main hope to dominate the Greek world.
  Meanwhile， the Athenians had formed a second Delian League with various Aegean states， promising to treat them better than they had treated the first Delian League. But Athens soon reverted to its old imperialist behavior. This triggered a revolt known as the Social War that ended Athens' imperial ambitions once and for all. Thus by 355 B.C.E.， after 75 years of almost constant warfare， Athens’ empire was gone， Sparta’s army and reputation were wrecked， and Thebes’ hopes for dominance were virtually laid to rest with Epaminondas. The polis’ resulting exhaustion combined with the long–range forces undermining the polis due to the Persian Wars and Greek colonization left the polis was in serious decline opened the way for a new power to step in.
  The rise of Macedon (355–336 B.C.E.)
  Macedon was a country north of Greece inhabited by tribes speaking a dialect related to Greek. While the Greeks considered them barbarians， the Macedonians liked to think of themselves as Greeks， and had played a minor role in Greek history from time to time. However， Macedon had never been a strong power until Philip II came to the throne in 359 B.C.E. after invading tribes from the north had killed his predecessor.
  Philip was one of the most remarkable figures in Greek history， only being overshadowed by his son Alexander. He was a shrewd， ambitious， and unscrupulous politician who knew how to exploit the hopes， fears， and mutual hatreds of the Greeks to his own advantage. The key to much of Philip’s success was control of the gold mines of Amphipolis， which gave him the money to do three things: build roads to tie his country together， bribe Greek politicians， and build up his army. Philip was an outstanding organizer and general who built what was probably the best army up to that point in history. Its main striking arm was an excellent cavalry， but it also utilized a phalanx armed with thirteen–foot long pikes (spears) and lightly armed peltasts. Together， these gave him the flexibility and coordination to deal with almost any situation on a battlefield.
  Preferring diplomacy to fighting whenever possible， Philip was able to work his way into the confidence of various Greek states to undermine their resistance to him when he finally decided to strike. For example， he gained a foothold in Greece by defending Delphi from another city–state， Phokis. He also undermined Athens’ power by taking and then freeing one of its allies and posing as the champion of all Greek liberties. Bit by bit， Philip worked his way southward， with only a few Greeks recognizing what was happening. Among these was Demosthenes， probably the greatest orator of the ancient world. In a masterful series of speeches known as Philippics， he repeatedly warned the Athenians of the danger to the north， but they did little.
  Historians through the ages have blamed the Athenians for their failure to react well to the Macedonian threat. However， in all fairness， the Athens faced a difficult dilemma， since acting against Philip could have been as ruinous as not moving to stop him. On the one hand， failing to act against Philip would allow him to conquer Greece. However， on the other hand， without an empire to provide it with the full treasury it had the previous century， Athens could no longer sustain a prolonged war against such a power as Macedon. Therefore， fighting such a war very likely would have wrecked Athens’ finances and given Philip the victory anyway.
  Athens and Thebes did finally band together to meet the Macedonians at Chaeronea in 338 B.C. A tricky back–stepping maneuver by the Macedonian phalanx lured the Athenians out of position， exposing the Thebans to the decisive cavalry charge led by Philip’s eighteen–year old son， Alexander. Demosthenes and others fled the field， leaving their shields and Greek liberty in the dust. For all intents and purposes， the age of the Greek polis was dead. The age of Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic kingdoms was about to dawn.
  古代希臘最強大的城邦中，雅典第一，斯巴達第二。所謂城邦，就是一個國家，它以城市為中心，周圍是鄉鎮。
  所有希臘城邦都是小國。希臘城邦的居民按照政治地位可以分為三大類： 擁有公民權因而能夠參加政治活動的自由人。
  沒有公民權的自由人。他們或是來自外邦的移民（例如雅典的“異邦人”），或是由於特定的歷史原因而與當權的公民集體處於不平等地位者（例如斯巴達的“邊民”），或是因貧困而失去公民資格者，或是因違法而被剝奪了公民權者，或是被釋放的奴隸。
  處於被剝削、奴役地位的奴隸。奴隸多系非希臘人，但也有一部分是希臘人，例如斯巴達的“黑勞士”。
  adapt to：變得習慣於……， 使適應於， 能應付……
  rely：信任，信賴，依賴，依靠
  flexibility：柔韌性，機動性，靈活性，易曲性，適應性，彈性
  contrast：對比，對照，差異，差別
  warfare：戰爭，戰爭狀態
  oversaw（oversee的過去式）：視察，觀察
  accomplish：完成，貫徹，實現（計劃）
  ambition：抱負，雄心，野心
  remarkable：異常的，不尋常的，非凡的
  Key Words in History 歷史關鍵詞
  1．Peloponnesian war 伯羅奔尼撒戰爭
  War fought between the two leading city–states in ancient Greece， Athens and Sparta. Each stood at the head of alliances that， between them， included nearly every Greek city–state. The fighting engulfed virtually the entire Greek world， and it was properly regarded by Thucydides， whose contemporary account of it is considered to be among the world’s finest works of history， as the most momentous war up to that time.
  2．Macedon 馬其頓王國
  Amyntas had three sons; the first two， Alexander II and Perdiccas III reigned only briefly. Perdiccas III’s infant heir was deposed by Amyntas’ third son， Philip II of Macedon， who made himself king and ushered in a period of Macedonian dominance of Greece. Under Philip II， (359–336 BC)， Macedon expanded into the territory of the Paeonians， Thracians， and Illyrians. Among other conquests， he annexed the regions of Pelagonia and Southern Paeonia.
  Philip redesigned the army of Macedon adding a number of variations to the traditional hoplite force to make it far more effective. He added the hetairoi， a well armoured heavy cavalry， and more light infantry， both of which added greater flexibility and responsiveness to the force. He also lengthened the spear and shrank the shield of the main infantry force， increasing its offensive capabilities.
  Philip began to rapidly expand the borders of his kingdom. He first campaigned in the north against non–Greek peoples such as the Illyrians， securing his northern border and gaining much prestige as a warrior. He next turned east， to the territory along the northern shore of the Aegean. The most important city in this area was Amphipolis， which controlled the way into Thrace and also was near valuable silver mines. This region had been part of the Athenian Empire， and Athens still considered it as in their sphere. The Athenians attempted to curb the growing power of Macedonia， but were limited by the outbreak of the Social War. They could also do little to halt Philip when he turned his armies south and took over most of Thessaly.
  Control of Thessaly meant Philip was now closely involved in the politics of central Greece. 356 BCE saw the outbreak of the Third Sacred War that pitted Phocis against Thebes and its allies. Thebes recruited the Macedonians to join them and at the Battle of Crocus Field Phillip decisively defeated Phocis and its Athenian allies. As a result Macedonia became the leading state in the Amphictyonic League and Phillip became head of the Pythian Games， firmly putting the Macedonian leader at the centre of the Greek political world.
  In the continuing conflict with Athens Philip marched east through Thrace in an attempt to capture Byzantium and the Bosphorus， thus cutting off the Black Sea grain supply that provided Athens with much of its food. The siege of Byzantium failed， but Athens realized the grave danger the rise of Macedon presented and under Demosthenes built a coalition of many of the major states to oppose the Macedonians. Most importantly Thebes， which had the strongest ground force of any of the city states， joined the effort. The allies met the Macedonians at the Battle of Chaeronea and were decisively defeated， leaving Philip and the Macedonians the unquestioned master of Greece.
  Background Knowledge 背景知識補充
  從希波戰爭到喪失獨立的公元前5世紀上半葉，希臘諸邦進行了數十年反抗波斯侵略的戰爭，並取得最後勝利。雅典在希波戰爭中起了重大作用，一躍成為公元前478年建立的提洛同盟的首領。這大大促進了雅典奴隸佔有製經濟的發展，引起雅典公民內部不同階層力量對比的變化，導致公元前462年（或公元前461年）厄菲阿爾特和伯裡克利所領導的改革。這次改革剝奪了由卸任的執政官組成的戰神山議事會（即貴族會議）的權力，將其分別交給公民大會、民眾法庭和五百人議事會，使民主政治發展到一個新階段。軍事殖民制度、各種社會公益捐獻和對公民的津貼以及大興土木，使佔公民多數的小生產者享有得到一定保障的物質生活和精神生活。在伯裡克利當政時期（公元前443至前429年），雅典在經濟、政治和文化方面臻於極盛，成為左右希臘世界局勢的霸國和主要文化中心。
  公元前 431年，雅典及其同盟者與以斯巴達為首的伯羅奔尼撒同盟之間爆發戰爭，公元前404年，戰爭以雅典失敗告終。提洛同盟瓦解。雅典一度屈從於斯巴達。公元前404年，民主政體被推翻，“三十僭主”肆虐一時。公元前403年，民主政治得到重建。公元前4世紀上半葉，雅典利用波斯和忒拜等希臘城邦與斯巴達的矛盾，在一定程度上恢復了自己的勢力，於公元前378年建立了第二次雅典海上同盟。國內政局比較穩定，經濟、文化都有一些發展。但公民內部貧富分化加劇，矛盾加深。從公元前4世紀50年代起，新興的馬其頓日益嚴重地威脅著在色雷斯和黑海海峽地區有重大利益關系的雅典的獨立和安全。雅典內部反馬其頓派和親馬其頓派之間展開了激烈的鬥爭，兩派交替佔據上風。公元前338年的喀羅尼亞之役，馬其頓擊敗了希臘各邦的反抗，從而確立了對包括雅典在內的許多希臘城邦的霸主地位。公元前323–前322年，雅典與馬其頓戰於拉米亞，結果失敗，附屬於馬其頓，從此完全失去政治獨立，民主政體名存實亡。公元前2世紀中葉並入羅馬版圖。
  伯羅奔尼撒戰爭
  伯羅奔尼撒戰爭，英文名為Peloponnesian War，是提洛同盟與伯羅奔尼撒聯盟之間的戰爭，戰爭的雙方是雅典和斯巴達之間。該戰爭使雅典走出了全勝時期，結束了希臘的民主時代。
  Reading in a single sitting 一口氣讀完這段歷史
  The Peloponnesian War， 431 to 404 BC， was an ancient Greek war fought by Athens and its empire against the Peloponnesian League led by Sparta. Historians have traditionally divided the war into three phases. In the first phase， the Archidamian War， Sparta launched repeated invasions of Attica， while Athens took advantage of its naval supremacy to raid the coast of the Peloponnese attempting to suppress signs of unrest in its empire. This period of the war was concluded in 421 BC， with the signing of the Peace of Nicias. That treaty， however， was soon undermined by renewed fighting in the Peloponnese. In 415 BC， Athens dispatched a massive expeditionary force to attack Syracuse in Sicily; the attack failed disastrously， with the destruction of the entire force， in 413 BC. This ushered in the final phase of the war， generally referred to either as the Decelean War， or the Ionian War. In this phase， Sparta， now receiving support from Persia， supported rebellions in Athens’ subject states in the Aegean Sea and Ionia， undermining Athens’ empire， and， eventually， depriving the city of naval supremacy. The destruction of Athens’ fleet at Aegospotami effectively ended the war， and Athens surrendered in the following year.
  The Peloponnesian War reshaped the Ancient Greek world. On the level of international relations， Athens， the strongest city–state in Greece prior to the war’s beginning， was reduced to a state of near–complete subjection， while Sparta became established as the leading power of Greece. The economic costs of the war were felt all across Greece; poverty became widespread in the Peloponnese， while Athens found itself completely devastated， and never regained its pre–war prosperity. The war also wrought subtler changes to Greek society; the conflict between democratic Athens and oligarchic Sparta， each of which supported friendly political factions within other states， made civil war a common occurrence in the Greek world.
  Greek warfare， meanwhile， originally a limited and formalized form of conflict， was transformed into an all–out struggle between city–states， complete with atrocities on a large scale. Shattering religious and cultural taboos， devastating vast swathes of countryside， and destroying whole cities， the Peloponnesian War marked the dramatic end to the fifth century BC and the golden age of Greece.
  伯羅奔尼撒戰爭（Peloponnesian War）是以雅典為首的提洛同盟與以斯巴達為首的伯羅奔尼撒聯盟之間的一場戰爭。這場戰爭從公元前431年一直持續到公元前404年，其中雙方幾度停戰，最後斯巴達獲勝。這場戰爭結束了雅典的經典時代，結束了希臘的民主時代。幾乎所有希臘的城邦都參加了這場戰爭，其戰場幾乎涉及了整個當時希臘語世界。在現代研究中也有人稱這場戰爭為古代世界大戰。
  invasion：侵略，入侵
  attempt：企圖，試圖，努力做某事
  suppress：平定，壓製
  conclude：結束，終止
  renew：重新開始，繼續
  effectively：有效地，實際上，事實上
  establish：建立，成立
  widespread：分布廣的，普遍的，廣泛的
  Key Words in History 歷史關鍵詞
  1．Peace of Nicias 尼西阿斯和平
  With the death of Cleon and Brasidas， zealous war hawks for both nations， the Peace of Nicias was able to last for some six years. However， it was a time of constant skirmishing in and around the Peloponnese. While the Spartans refrained from action themselves， some of their allies began to talk of revolt. They were supported in this by Argos， a powerful state within the Peloponnese that had remained independent of Lacedaemon. With the support of the Athenians， the Argives succeeded in forging a coalition of democratic states within the Peloponnese， including the powerful states of Mantinea and Elis. Early Spartan attempts to break up the coalition failed， and the leadership of the Spartan king Agis was called into question. Emboldened， the Argives and their allies， with the support of a small Athenian force under Alcibiades， moved to seize the city of Tegea， near Sparta.
  The Battle of Mantinea was the largest land battle fought within Greece during the Peloponnesian War. The Lacedaemonians， with their neighbors the Tegeans， faced the combined armies of Argos， Athens， Mantinea， and Arcadia. In the battle， the allied coalition scored early successes， but failed to capitalize on them， which allowed the Spartan elite forces to defeat the forces opposite them. The result was a complete victory for the Spartans， which rescued their city from the brink of strategic defeat. The democratic alliance was broken up， and most of its members were reincorporated into the Peloponnesian League. With its victory at Mantinea， Sparta pulled itself back from the brink of utter defeat， and re–established its hegemony throughout the Peloponnese.
  2．The Second War 二次戰爭
  The Lacedaemonians were not content with simply sending aid to Sicily; they also resolved to take the war to the Athenians. On the advice of Alcibiades， they fortified Decelea， near Athens， and prevented the Athenians from making use of their land year round. The fortification of Decelea prevented the shipment of supplies overland to Athens， and forced all supplies to be brought in by sea at increased expense. Perhaps worst of all， the nearby silver mines were totally disrupted， with as many as 20，000 Athenian slaves freed by the Spartan hoplites at Decelea. With the treasury and emergency reserve fund of 1，000 talents dwindling away， the Athenians were forced to demand even more tribute from her subject allies， further increasing tensions and the threat of further rebellion within the Empire.
  The Corinthians， the Spartans， and others in the Peloponnesian League sent more reinforcements to Syracuse， in the hopes of driving off the Athenians; but instead of withdrawing， the Athenians sent another hundred ships and another 5，000 troops to Sicily. Under Gylippus， the Syracusans and their allies were able to decisively defeat the Athenians on land; and Gylippus encouraged the Syracusans to build a navy， which was able to defeat the Athenian fleet when they attempted to withdraw. The Athenian army， attempting to withdraw overland to other， more friendly Sicilian cities， was divided and defeated; the entire Athenian fleet was destroyed， and virtually the entire Athenian army was sold off into slavery.
  Following the defeat of the Athenians in Sicily， it was widely believed that the end of the Athenian Empire was at hand. Her treasury was nearly empty， her docks were depleted， and the flower of her youth was dead or imprisoned in a foreign land. They overestimated the strength of their own empire and the beginning of the end was indeed at hand.
  Background Knowledge 背景知識補充
  伯羅奔尼撒戰爭給希臘世界帶來前所未有的破壞，促使小農經濟與手工業者破產，不少城邦喪失了大批勞動力，土地荒蕪，工商業停滯倒閉。大奴隸主、大土地所有者、投機商人和高利貸者乘機而入，大肆兼並土地、聚斂財富和奴隸，中小奴隸製經濟逐漸被吞沒，代之而起的是大地產、大手工業作坊主為代表的大奴隸主經濟。大批公民破產，兵源減少，城邦的統治基礎動搖了。貧民過著衣不蔽體，食不果腹的生活，不滿富人和豪強的統治。柏拉圖曾經寫道：“每個城邦，不管分別如何的小，都分成了兩個敵對部分，一個是窮人的城邦，一個是富人的城邦。”因此，在斯巴達、科林斯等城邦，都曾先後發生貧民起義，打死了許多奴隸主，瓜分了他們的財產。風起雲湧的起義打擊了奴隸主的統治，進一步加速了希臘城邦的衰落。伯羅奔尼撒戰爭不僅結束了雅典的霸權，而且使整個希臘奴隸製城邦制度逐漸退出了歷史舞台。
  這場戰爭，使得斯巴達稱霸於全希臘，使其寡頭政製得以推行；各邦民主勢力同時遭到迫害。寡頭政製的蠻橫統治又引起各國的強烈不滿，許多城邦起兵反抗，伯羅奔尼撒同盟趨於瓦解。接著，幾個比較強大的城邦如底比斯、雅典又為爭奪希臘霸權繼續戰爭。公元前3世紀前半期，希臘境內戰火不絕，各邦力量彼此消耗下去，後來終於被早已對其覬覦的外敵馬其頓所滅。
  伯羅奔尼撒戰爭在古代軍事史上佔有相當地位。對抗雙方對海上通路的爭奪，從海上對敵的封鎖和侵入都達到了很大規模。奪取要塞創造了許多新方法，如使用水淹、火焚和挖掘地道等。方陣雖還是戰鬥隊形的基礎，但步兵能以密集隊形和散開隊形在起伏地機動行動。職業軍人開始出現……這些都對希臘以及西歐軍事產生了深遠影響。