An　Introduction　to　Chinese　and　Western　Culture
中西文化概况
（修订版）
主编孔文颜榴红
编者邱菲王小燕Dave　Hufton　南京大学出版社
图书在版编目（CIP）数据中西文化概况　/　孔文，颜榴红主编.　—修订本.—
南京：南京大学出版社，　2019.6
ISBN　9787305216909Ⅰ.　①中…Ⅱ.　①孔…　②颜…Ⅲ.　①比较文化中
国、西方国家高等学校教材Ⅳ.　①G04中国版本图书馆CIP数据核字(2019)第042081号出版者南京大学出版社
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主编孔文颜榴红
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图书销售部门联系调换中西文化概况（修订版）前言
目前国际交流日益频繁，了解本国及英语国家的文化背景、风土民情及社会习俗等，不仅是学好语言、成功交际的关键，更能提升自身文化修养与内涵。不同民族在其不同的生态环境下创造了自己特有的文化，而母语文化与目的语文化之间的差异往往会导致语用失误，从而影响交际。外语学习到了一定的阶段，其主要障碍已不在语言本身，而在于学习者对目的语和母语文化知识的了解程度，以及在此基础上形成的对两种文化差异的思辨。成功的交际很大程度上取决于了解彼此文化背景的程度。跨文化交际不是同一种文化之间的交际，也不是文化融入，必须同时强调母语文化与目的语文化素质的培养，不能只重视外族文化，而忽视或放弃自己的文化根基。为此，我们为广大英语学习者编写了这本《中西文化概况》。
本教材自2014年10月由南京大学出版社出版和发行以来，得到全国高校从事中西方文化教学的同行教师认可，受到广大学生的喜爱。2016年8月重印，2018年1月荣获2017年江苏省高等学校重点规划教材（修订教材）建设立项。这一系列成绩的取得既是对我们以往努力的肯定，令我们备受鼓舞，也督促我们修订教材时更加严格要求自己，精益求精。
本教材分别对英美文化和中国文化进行了较为全面、系统、精炼的介绍，主要具有以下特点：
1.　结构明晰：本教材共有十章，每章一个主题，分别介绍英国、美国和中国文化。每个章节后附有词汇表，以方便学习者自学；课外阅读部分主要利用网络资源，向学习者推荐加拿大、澳大利亚和新西兰国家的相应主题文化；小组任务部分则针对每一章的主题文化设计了相应问题，旨在帮助学习者培养其思考问题和解决问题的能力。
2.　选材时效性、趣味性强：本教材所选材料内容新颖，图文并茂，增加了教材的形象性、活泼性和趣味性。
3.　语言难易适中：本教材尽量选用常用词汇，个别较难词汇列在每一章的词汇表中。英文注解部分可以帮助学习者更深入地了解相关专有名词的文化内涵，充分体现了语言学习和文化学习的相互渗透。
4.　课堂教学与自主学习相结合：本教材主课文部分可供教师根据学生水平和具体课时选用进行课堂教学；课外阅读部分可用于培养学习者自主探寻获取信息的能力；小组任务既涉及对所学内容的思考，又超越了书本内容，旨在帮助学习者培养自主构建知识和探索创新的能力。
在本次修订过程中，为使教材内容更加充实、新颖，语言更加流畅和通俗易懂。本教材补充和完善了以下内容：
1.　由原来九章增加到十章，增加了第四章哲学。
2.　更新章节部分内容。譬如，更新了历史内容，添加了英国脱欧，特雷莎·梅当选首相，特朗普当选美国总统，以“中国梦”为目标，“一带一路”建设等。
3.　对中国文学和民间艺术方面内容进行了拓展。譬如，添加了近年来中国当代作家作品，丰富了雕刻、剪刻、织绣、表演、装饰陈设等方面的中国民间艺术内容。
4.　对原教材语言重新进行了审校。
本教材不仅可以作为高等院校中英文化教材，也适用于广大涉外工作人员、英语教师和英语学习者更好地了解中英文化。
本教材编者在编写过程中参考了众多现有的国内外出版的教材、报纸、杂志，借鉴了大量的网络文本和图片资源，在此表示由衷的感谢。
衷心感谢英国的Dave　Hufton　博士，他不仅是位教育家，更是一名哲学家，而且对中国文化也颇有研究。他为本教材的每个章节精心设计了小组任务，这些任务引人深思，极具挑战性，为每个章节起到了画龙点睛的作用。
由于中西文化涉及内容多，覆盖领域广，加之编者水平有限，书中难免有不足疏漏之处，敬请广大读者和专家批评指正。本教材在编写过程中得到常州大学和周有光语言文化学院领导的大力支持，得到南京大学出版社有关编辑的帮助，在此表示衷心的感谢。
编者2019年6月ContentsContents
Chapter　1Geography1
Section　AGeography　of　the　United　Kingdom1
Section　BGeography　of　the　United　States　of　America4
Section　CGeography　of　China9
·　Notes13
·　Glossary14
·　Further　Reading15
·　Group　Tasks15
Chapter　2History17
Section　AHistory　of　the　United　Kingdom17
Section　BHistory　of　the　United　States　of　America29
Section　CHistory　of　China35
·　Notes42
·　Glossary43
·　Further　Reading44
·　Group　Tasks45
Chapter　3Government　and　Politics46
Section　AGovernment　and　Politics　of　the　United　Kingdom46
Section　BGovernment　and　Politics　of　the　United　States　of　America52
Section　CGovernment　and　Politics　of　China57
·　Notes63
·　Glossary63
·　Further　Reading65
·　Group　Tasks65
Chapter　4Philosophy66
Section　APhilosophy　in　the　United　Kingdom66
Section　BPhilosophy　in　the　United　States　of　America70
Section　CPhilosophy　in　China72
·　Notes76
·　Glossary77
·　Further　Reading78
·　Group　Tasks78
Chapter　5Education79
Section　AEducation　in　the　United　Kingdom79
Section　BEducation　in　the　United　States　of　America86
Section　CEducation　in　China91
·　Notes97
·　Glossary98
·　Further　Reading99
·　Group　Tasks99
Chapter　6Literature　and　Art101
Section　ALiterature　and　Art　in　the　United　Kingdom101
Section　BLiterature　and　Art　in　the　United　States　of　America108
Section　CLiterature　and　Art　in　China115
·　Notes134
·　Glossary135
·　Further　Reading138
·　Group　Tasks138
Chapter　7　Customs　and　Etiquette140
Section　ACustoms　and　Etiquette　in　the　United　Kingdom140
Section　BCustoms　and　Etiquette　in　the　United　States　of　America146
Section　CCustoms　and　Etiquette　in　China152
·　Notes162
·　Glossary163
·　Further　Reading165
·　Group　Tasks165
Chapter　8Food　Culture167
Section　AFood　Culture　in　the　United　Kingdom167
Section　BFood　Culture　in　the　United　States　of　America172
Section　CFood　Culture　in　China178
·　Notes188
·　Glossary188
·　Further　Reading191
·　Group　Tasks192
Chapter　9　Sports　and　Recreations193
Section　ASports　and　Recreations　in　the　United　Kingdom193
Section　BSports　and　Recreations　in　the　United　States　of　America198
Section　CSports　and　Recreations　in　China204
·　Notes211
·　Glossary212
·　Further　Reading214
·　Group　Tasks215
Chapter　10Holidays　and　Festivals217
Section　AHolidays　and　Festivals　in　the　United　Kingdom217
Section　BHolidays　and　Festivals　in　the　United　States　of　America224
Section　CHolidays　and　Festivals　in　China232
·　Notes243
·　Glossary243
·　Further　Reading245
·　Group　Tasks245
References247
Chapter　1Geography中西文化概况（修订版）Chapter　1Geography
Section　AGeography　of　the　United　Kingdom
1.　Physical　Geography
Geographical　Location　of
the　U．K．　The　United　Kingdom　of　Great　Britain　and　Northern　Ireland，　commonly　known　as　the　United　Kingdom　（or　the　U．K.），　or　simply　Britain，　is　a　sovereign　state　located　off　the　northwestern　coast　of　continental　Europe．　It　includes　Scotland，　England，　Wales　and　Northern　Ireland　（not　actually　on　the　island　of　Great　Britain）．　The　total　area　of　the　U．K．　is　approximately　245，000　km2　with　a　population　of　about　60　million　people　（2009　estimate）．　The　U．K．　lies　between　the　North　Atlantic　and　the　North　Sea，　and　comes　within　35　km　of　the　northwest　coast　of　France，　from　which　it　is　separated　by　the　English　Channel．　The　Channel　Tunnel　bordered　beneath　the　English　Channel，　now　links　the　U．K．　with　France．
England
England
England　is　in　the　southern　part　of　Great　Britain　and　is　divided　into　nine　governmental　regions．　It　is　sometimes，　wrongly，　used　in　reference　to　the　whole　United　Kingdom，　the　entire　island　of　Great　Britain，　or　indeed　the　British　Isles．　This　is　not　only　incorrect　but　can　cause　offence　to　people　from　other　parts　of　the　U．K．
The　south　of　England　is　mostly　lowlying　land，　with　hills　and　agricultural　land　and　the　north　of　England　is　mostly　covered　in　moorlands　and　mountains．　England　covers　over　50，000　square　miles　（130，　439　km2）　and　is　the　largest　of　the　countries　comprising　the　island　of　Britain，　covering　about　twothirds　of　the　island．　No　place　in　England　is　more　than　75　miles　（120　km）　from　the　sea．
The　River　Thames
The　landscape　is　determined　mainly　by　different　types　of　rocks　underlying　it．　In　the　south，　chalk　has　produced　the　gently　rolling　hills　of　the　Downs［1］，　while　hard　granite　is　the　basis　for　the　mountains　of　the　north　and　the　high　moorlands　in　the　southwest．　Much　of　the　land　in　England　is　flat　（lowlying）—less　than　1，000　m　above　the　sea　level，　forming　meadowlands　and　pastures　and　less　than　10　percent　of　the　area　is　covered　by　woodlands．　Farmers　raise　animals　or　grow　crops　in　the　fields．　The　landscape　of　England　is　more　rugged　in　the　north　and　the　west．　The　highest　elevations　are　in　Cumbria　and　the　Lake　District　in　the　west．　The　southwest　is　a　long　peninsula　with　bleak　moorlands　and　rocky　outcrop．　In　the　southeast，　a　horseshoeshaped　ring　of　chalk　downs　surrounds　the　formerly　wooded　area　of　the　Weald［2］．　The　southeast　corner　has　dramatic　chalk　cliffs　bordering　the　English　Channel．　Englands　best　known　river　is　the　River　Thames　which　flows　through　southern　England．　It　is　the　longest　river　in　England　and　the　second　longest　in　the　U．K．，　next　to　River　Severn．　England　has　a　long　coastline　of　3，200　km．　In　the　south　and　west，　the　coastline　can　be　rocky　with　steep　cliffs．　The　east　coast　is　often　flat　and　lowlying　with　beaches　and　mud　flats．
Scotland
Scotland
Scotland　is　a　mountainous　country　in　the　north　of　Great　Britain　and　shares　a　land　border　to　the　south　with　England　and　is　bounded　by　the　North　Sea　on　the　east　and　the　Atlantic　Ocean　on　the　west．　Its　capital　city　is　Edinburgh．　Scotland　has　some　790　islands．　It　is　famous　for　its　fresh　water　lochs—there　are　over　600　square　miles　of　them．　One　of　the　most　famous　is　Loch　Ness　where　a　mysterious　monster　is　said　to　lurk　in　the　depths　of　the　water．　It　is　also　famous　for　its　clans，　kilts，　medieval　castles，　as　well　as　poetry　and　songs　of　Robert　Burns．　Theatre　lovers　from　around　the　world　come　to　Edinburgh　for　its　famous　theatre　festivals．
Scotlands　terrain　is　divided　into　three　regions:　the　Highlands，　the　Central　Lowlands，　and　the　Southern　Uplands．　The　Highlands　cover　more　than　onehalf　of　Scotland　and　include　the　Grampian　Mountains．　The　ranges　highest　peak，　Ben　Nevis　（1，343　m/4，406　ft），　is　also　the　highest　in　Great　Britain．　Scotlands　population　is　concentrated　in　the　Central　Lowlands，　which　include　the　cities　of　Glasgow　and　Edinburgh．　The　Southern　Uplands　primarily　consist　of　a　moorland　plateau　with　valleys　and　mountainous　outcroppings．　The　River　Clyde　is　the　principal　navigational　river．　Wales
Wales
Wales　is　situated　on　the　western　side　of　central　southern　Great　Britain．　It　is　a　mountainous　land，　bordered　by　England　to　the　east，　the　Bristol　Channel　to　the　south，　St　Georges　Channel　in　the　west，　and　the　Irish　Sea　to　the　north．　It　is　about　274　km　from　north　to　south　and　at　least　97　km　wide，　with　a　total　area　of　20，779　km2．
Wales　has　a　varied　geography　with　sharp　contrasts．　In　the　south，　flat　coastal　plains　give　way　to　valleys，　then　to　ranges　of　hills　and　mountains　in　mid　and　north　Wales．　There　are　many　national　parks　and　areas　with　outstanding　natural　beauty．　80　percent　of　the　land　is　dedicated　to　agriculture，　ranging　from　crops　to　livestock．　The　largest　mountains　in　the　north　are　part　of　the　Snowdonia　range，　with　the　largest　mountain　being　Snowdon　at　1，085　m．　There　are　over　1，300　km　of　coastline　ranging　from　long　flat　sandy　beaches　to　towering　cliffs．
Northern　Ireland
Northern　Ireland
Northern　Ireland　is　an　integral　part　of　the　U．K．．　It　is　situated　in　the　northeastern　portion　of　the　island　of　Ireland．　Northern　Ireland　is　also　known　as　Ulster，　because　it　consists　of　six　of　the　nine　counties　that　were　parts　of　the　former　province　of　Ulster:　Antrim，　Armagh，　Down，　Fermanagh，　Londonderry，　and　Tyrone．　Northern　Ireland　measures　about　85　miles　（135　km）　north　and　south，　and　about　110　miles　（175　km）　east　and　west．
Northern　Irelands　landforms　were　influenced　greatly　by　Ice　Age　glaciers．　The　terrain　consists　of　rounded　hills　and　low　mountains　separated　by　broad　valleys．　Only　in　a　few　areas　do　deep，　steepsided　valleys　cut　the　land．　Principal　mountain　ranges　include　the　Mourne　Mountains　in　the　southeast　and　the　Sperrin　Mountains　in　the　northwest．　Slieve　Donard，　in　the　Mournes，　is　the　countrys　highest　peak，　reaching　2，796　ft　（852　m）　above　the　sea　level，　where　the　mountains　extend　to　the　sea，　the　coasts　are　marked　by　cliffs　and　steep　slopes．
2．　Climate
Regional　climates　in　the　U．K．　are　influenced　by　the　Atlantic　Ocean　and　latitude．　Northern　Ireland，　Wales　and　western　parts　of　England　and　Scotland，　being　closest　to　the　Atlantic　Ocean，　are　generally　the　mildest，　wettest　and　windiest　regions　of　the　U．K．，　and　temperature　ranges　here　are　seldom　extreme．　Eastern　areas　are　drier，　cooler，　less　windy　and　also　experience　the　greatest　daily　and　seasonal　temperature　variations．　Northern　areas　are　generally　cooler，　wetter　and　have　slightly　larger　temperature　ranges　than　southern　areas．　Though　the　U．K．　is　mostly　under　the　influence　of　the　maritime　tropical　air　mass　from　the　southwest，　different　regions　are　more　susceptible　than　others　when　different　air　masses　affect　the　country:　Northern　Ireland　and　the　west　of　Scotland　are　the　most　exposed　to　the　maritime　polar　air　mass　which　brings　cool　moist　air；　the　east　of　Scotland　and　northeast　England　are　more　exposed　to　the　continental　polar　air　mass　which　brings　cold　dry　air；　the　south　and　southeast　of　England　are　more　exposed　to　the　continental　tropical　air　mass　which　brings　warm　dry　air　（and　consequently　the　warmest　summer　temperatures　most　of　the　time）；　and　Wales　and　the　southwest　of　England　are　the　most　exposed　to　the　maritime　tropical　air　mass　which　brings　warm　moist　air．　If　the　air　masses　are　strong　enough　in　their　respective　areas　during　the　summer，　there　can　sometimes　be　a　huge　difference　in　temperature　between　the　far　north　of　Scotland　（including　the　Islands）　and　southeast　of　England—usually　around　1015℃　（5059）　but　can　be　as　much　as　20℃（68）　or　more．　An　example　of　this　could　be　that　in　the　height　of　summer　the　Northern　Isles　could　have　temperatures　around　15℃　（59）　and　areas　around　London　could　reach　30℃　（86）．　However，　the　temperature　varies　with　the　seasons，　seldom　drops　below　-11℃（12）　or　rises　above　35℃　（95）．
Section　BGeography　of　the　United　States　of　America
The　United　States　of　America　or　the　U．S．A．　is　a　country　in　the　Northern　Hemisphere，　Western　Hemisphere，　and　the　Eastern　Hemisphere．　It　consists　of　fortyeight　contiguous　states　in　North　America，　Alaska，　a　peninsula　which　forms　the　most　northwestern　part　of　North　America，　and　Hawaii，　an　archipelago　in　the　Pacific　Ocean．　There　are　several　U．S．　territories　in　the　Pacific　and　Caribbean．　The　term　“United　States”，　when　used　in　the　geographical　sense，　means　the　continental　U．S．，　Alaska，　Hawaii，　Puerto　Rico，　Guam，　and　the　Virgin　Islands　of　the　U．S．．　The　country　shares　land　borders　with　Canada　and　Mexico　and　maritime　（water）　borders　with　Russia，　Cuba，　and　the　Bahamas　in　addition　to　Canada　and　Mexico．
1．　Physical　Geography
The　United　States　of　America　may　be　divided　into　seven　broad　physiographic　divisions　from　east　to　west:　the　Atlantic　Plain，　the　Appalachian　Highlands，　the　Interior　Plains，　the　Interior　Highlands，　the　Rocky　Mountain　System，　the　Intermountain　Region，　and　the　Pacific　Mountain　System．
The　Atlantic　Plain
Geographical　Location　of　the　U．S．
The　Atlantic　Plain　is　a　rather　flat　stretch　of　land　that　borders　the　Atlantic　Ocean　（including　the　Gulf　of　Mexico）．　It　is　approximately　2，200　miles　long，　stretching　from　Cape　Cod，　through　the　southeast　U．S．　and　through　Mexico，　ending　with　the　Yucatan　Peninsula．　The　western　border　of　the　coastal　plain　is　easily　defined　by　a　long　series　of　mountain　ranges，　including　the　Appalachian　Mountains　and　the　Great　Smoky　Mountains．　The　eastern　border　isnt　well　defined　since　most　of　the　plain　is　at　or　below　the　sea　level．　Some　define　the　east　border　to　be　the　coastline．　Currently，　the　coastal　plain　is　very　wet，　including　many　rivers，　marshes　and　swamplands．　It　is　primarily　used　for　agriculture．
The　Appalachian　Highlands
Appalachian　Highlands，　an　upland　area　of　eastern　North　America，　chiefly　in　the　U．S．，　extends　from　eastern　Canada　to　central　Alabama．　The　entire　system　is　almost　2，000　miles　（3，200　km）　long，　and　up　to　300　miles　（480　km）　wide．　The　regions　higher　and　rougher　parts　form　the　socalled　Appalachian　Mountains．
The　Appalachians　first　formed　roughly　480　million　years　ago　during　the　Ordovician　Period，　and　once　reached　elevations　similar　to　those　of　the　Alps　and　the　Rocky　Mountains　before　they　were　eroded．　The　Appalachian　chain　is　a　barrier　to　eastwest　travel　as　it　forms　a　series　of　alternating　ridgelines　and　valleys　oriented　in　opposition　to　any　road　running　eastwest．　The　scenic　beauty　of　mountains，　streams，　forests　and　the　regions　historic　sites　make　the　Appalachians　a　popular　vacation　area．
The　Interior　Plains
The　Interior　Plains，　the　largest　physical　region　in　the　U．S．，　are　located　west　of　the　Appalachian　Highlands，　east　of　the　Rocky　Mountains，　and　north　of　the　Gulf　Coastal　Plain．　The　regions　greatest　dimensions　are　about　1，200　miles　（1，900　km）　eastwest　and　1，300　miles　（2，100　km）　northsouth．　Thick　beds　of　sedimentary　rocks　underlie　this　vast　area　of　plains．　North　of　the　Missouri　and　Ohio　rivers　are　deep　glacial　deposits．
At　about　the　100th　meridian，　the　Interior　Plains　divide　into　the　Great　Plains，　to　the　west，　and　the　Central　Lowlands，　to　the　east．　Both　sections　have　vast　stretches　of　flat　land　and　of　gently　rolling　land．　A　major　difference　between　the　two　areas　is　elevation—the　Great　Plains　lie　at　an　elevation　of　2，000　to　6，000　feet　（600　to　1，800m），　and　the　Central　Lowlands　are　much　lower．　The　Interior　Plains　are　bordered　by　two　upland　regions—the　Superior　Uplands　on　the　north，　and　the　Central　Uplands　on　the　south．　The　Superior　Uplands　are　in　Minnesota，　Wisconsin，　and　Michigan．　The　Central　Uplands　are　in　Missouri，　Arkansas，　and　Oklahoma．
The　Interior　Highlands
The　U．S．　Interior　Highlands　is　a　mountainous　region　spanning　eastern　Oklahoma，　western　and　northern　Arkansas，　southern　Missouri，　and　the　extreme　southeast　corner　of　Kansas．　The　area　refers　to　the　combined　mountainous　region　of　the　Ozarks　and　Ouachita　Mountains，　which　form　a　distinct　physiographic　division．　It　is　the　only　major　highland　region　between　the　Rocky　Mountains　and　the　Appalachian　Mountains　in　the　U．S．．
The　region　is　occupied　by　the　Ozark　mountain　forests，　an　ecoregion　of　temperate　broadleaf　and　mixed　forests．　Parts　of　the　area　are　covered　by　three　national　forests:　the　Ouachita　National　Forest　in　Oklahoma　and　Arkansas，　the　OzarkSt．　Francis　National　Forest　in　Arkansas，　and　the　Mark　Twain　National　Forest　in　Missouri．
The　Rocky　Mountain　System
Mount　Elbert　in　July
The　Rocky　Mountain　Range　actually　represents　a　series　of　more　than　100　separate　mountain　ranges，　rather　than　one　uninterrupted　mountain　chain．　These　ranges　stretch　through　New　Mexico，　Idaho，　Montana，　Wyoming，　Utah　and　Colorado，　and　also　extend　into　British　Columbia　and　Alberta，　Canada．　The　entire　series　of　mountain　ranges　measure　approximately　3，000　miles．　Mount　Elbert　near　Leadville，　Colorado，　has　an　elevation　of　14，433　feet，　making　it　the　tallest　peak　in　the　mountain　range．　The　popular　Pikes　Peak，　the　second　most　visited　peak　in　the　world，　is　the　31st　highest，　rising　14，110　feet　above　the　sea　level．
Because　of　the　vast　expanse　covered　by　the　Rocky　Mountain　Range，　it　holds　several　national　parks．　Rocky　Mountain　National　Park，　Yellowstone　National　Park，　Grand　Teton　National　Park，　Glacier　National　Park　and　the　Royal　Gorge　Park，　all　give　guests　the　opportunity　to　explore　the　Rockies．　It　also　serves　as　the　habitat　to　66　mammal　species，　including　the　rare　lynx　and　wolverine．
The　Intermountain　（Intermontane）　Region
The　Intermountain　Region　or　the　Intermountain　West　is　located　between　the　Rocky　Mountains　on　the　east　and　the　Cascade　Range　and　Sierra　Nevada　on　the　west．　It　covers　the　state　of　Utah　and　the　neighboring　parts　of　Arizona，　Nevada，　Colorado，　western　Wyoming，　eastern　Idaho，　and　a　small　portion　of　southwestern　Montana．
Its　wetlands，　rivers，　and　lakes　provide　habitats　for　many　birds．　The　Intermountain　Region　is　a　home　to　a　massive　1．6　million　breeding　ducks　and　over　100，000　overwintering　ducks，　geese，　and　swans．　It　is　thinly　populated　because　people　dont　have　the　proper　necessities　to　live　there　along　with　the　proper　food　supply．　This　is　a　good　thing　because　the　land　is　left　alone　for　the　animals　to　enjoy，　and　it　leaves　the　environment　in　a　beautiful　state．
The　Pacific　Mountain　System
Between　the　Intermountain　Region　and　the　Pacific　Ocean　is　the　Pacific　Mountain　System，　the　series　of　mountain　ranges　that　stretch　along　the　West　Coast　of　North　America　from　Alaska　south　to　Northern　and　Central　Mexico．　It　runs　for　some　4，500　miles　（7，250　km）　in　the　U．S．　and　extends　northward　into　Canada　for　another　1，000　miles　（1，600　km）．　This　province　includes　the　active　and　sometimes　dead　or　extinct　volcanoes　of　the　Cascade　Range　and　the　young，　steep　mountains　of　the　Pacific　Border　and　the　Sierra　Nevada．
The　Cascade　Range　is　a　backpackers　paradise．　Hikers　can　experience　a　striking　ecological　transition　across　the　range，　from　temperate　rain　forests　on　the　western，　windward　slopes　to　open　pine　savanna　and　shrub　steppes　on　the　eastern．　The　Sierra　Nevada　is　a　400milelong　mountain　range　of　singular　beauty．　While　the　Sierra　high　country　has　its　share　of　rugged　topography，　including　sawtoothed　volcanic　ridges　and　some　mighty　river　gorges，　much　of　it　offers　the　backpacker　remarkably　gentle　terrain　of　undulating　granite　highlands，　as　well　as　some　of　the　most　moderate　mountain　weather．
2．　Climate
The　climate　in　U．S．　varies　across　different　parts　of　the　country．　Generally，　the　western　and　southern　parts　of　U．S．　have　warmer　weather　as　compared　with　the　eastern　and　northern　parts．　The　eastern　and　northern　parts　of　U．S．　experience　chilly　winters　with　heavy　snowfalls　but　the　summers　are　pleasant．　The　western　and　southern　parts　have　extremely　hot　summers　and　comparatively　tolerable　winters．
The　U．S．　can　be　divided　into　six　climate　regions　（Northwest　Pacific，　Mid/South　Pacific，　Midwest，　Northeast，　Southeast，　Southwest），　excluding　Alaska，　Hawaii　and　outlying　territories．　The　climate　varies　considerably　among　different　regions．
Northwest　Pacific（Includes　states　like　Oregon　and　Washington　to　the　crest　of　the　Cascade　Mountains）
This　is　perhaps　the　wettest　part　of　the　country．　There　are　scattered　rain　showers　all　year　round．　Temperatures　are　mild　averaging　around　40　（32．2　℃）．　The　summer　months　are　pleasantly　warmer　and　never　too　hot．　You　can　see　fogs　along　the　coast　during　the　warmer　weather　but　the　fog　is　less　dense　during　midday．
Mid/South　Pacific　Rockies（Includes　states　like　California，　Idaho，　Montana，　Wyoming，　Colorado，　Utah　and　Nevada）
These　states　have　generally　dry　and　delightful　summers．　California　has　excellent　weather　all　the　year　round，　with　the　northern　part　of　the　state　somewhat　cooler　（quiet　chilly　in　the　winter　but　seldom　freezing）．　There　are　few　places　in　California　that　experience　snow，　and　the　state　is　known　for　its　nice　weather．　Most　of　the　cities　have　tolerable　winters．　The　winter　months　in　the　other　states　like　Montana，　Idaho　and　Wyoming　can　be　very　cold，　with　temperatures　dropping　well　below　0　（-17.8℃）．　Colorado，　Utah　and　Nevada　are　known　for　their　excellent　skiing．
Midwest　（Includes　states　like　Dakotas，　Kansas，　Illinois，　Iowa，　Minnesota，　Wisconsin，　Michigan，　and　Indiana）
This　region　is　moderately　dry．　Precipitation　occurs　mainly　in　late　spring　and　early　summer．　Summers　are　pleasant　but　winter　time　can　be　harsh，　with　lots　of　snow　and　heavy　chilly　winds．　Extremes　within　the　Midwest　can　drop　down　to　-50（-45.6℃）．
Northeast　（Includes　states　like　Ohio，　Pennsylvania，　Washington　D．C．，　and　Maryland）．
This　entire　area　is　moderately　rainy．　In　winter，　the　region　experiences　heavy　snow　and　freezing　rain．　Summers　are　usually　pleasant，　sunny　and　warm．　The　fall　is　especially　beautiful　in　wooded　areas．
Southeast（Includes　states　like　portions　of　Arkansas　and　Louisiana，　Kentucky，　West　Virginia，　Virginia）
Like　the　Northeast，　this　entire　area　experiences　moderate　rains　fairly　and　evenly　throughout　the　year．　The　spring，　summer　and　fall　seasons　are　all　very　pleasant．　Some　snow　and　freezing　rain　fall　in　winter，　but　for　the　most　parts，　the　winters　are　quite　mild　and　short　lived．　Southern　Florida，　like　California，　usually　has　excellent　weather　all　the　year　round．
Southwest（Includes　states　like　Arizona，　New　Mexico，　Texas，　Oklahoma　and　western　portions　of　Arkansas　and　Louisiana）
This　is　the　hottest　and　high　rainfall　region　of　the　U．S．．　You　must　be　prepared　to　face　heavy　rains　accompanied　with　thunder　storms，　dangerous　lightening　and　occasional　tornadoes．　The　winters　are　generally　short　but　some　freezing　rains　do　occur．　The　spring　and　fall　seasons　are　quite　long　and　temperatures　are　generally　excellent．　The　summers　are　very　hot　with　temperatures　approaching　and　exceeding　100（37.8℃）　on　many　days．
Section　CGeography　of　China
Located　in　the　east　on　the　Asian　continent　on　the　western　shore　of　the　Pacific　Ocean，　the　Peoples　Republic　of　China　（PRC）　is　the　worlds　most　populous　country，　with　a　population　of　over　1．35　billion．　Covering　approximately　9．6　million　km2，　China　is　the　worlds　second　largest　country　by　land　area，　and　the　third　largest　country　in　total　area　behind　Russia　and　Canada，　and　very　similar　to　the　U．S．．
1．　Physical　Geography
China　has　been　officially　and　conveniently　divided　into　5　homogeneous　physical　macroregions:　namely　Eastern　China　（subdivided　into　the　northeast　plain，　north　plain，　and　southern　hills），　the　XinqiangMongolian　uplands，　and　the　Tibetan　highlands．
Eastern　China
Northeast　Plain
Northeast　Plain
Northeast　plain　is　also　called　Manchurian　Plain　or　Sungliao　Plain，　heart　of　the　central　lowland　of　northeastern　China．　It　has　a　surface　area　of　about　135，000　square　miles　（350，000　km2），　all　of　which　lies　below　1，000　feet　（300　m）　above　the　sea　level．　The　plain，　largely　the　product　of　erosion　from　the　surrounding　highlands，　is　mostly　undulating，　with　fertile　black　soils．　It　is　bordered　on　the　west　by　the　Da　Hinggan　Range，　on　the　north　by　the　Xiao　Hinggan　Range，　and　on　the　east　by　the　Changbai　ranges，　but　on　the　south　it　is　open　to　the　Gulf　of　Liaodong．　It　is　drained　by　the　Sungari　River　［3］　and　its　tributary，　the　Nen　River，　in　the　north　and　by　the　Liao　River　in　the　south．　It　connects　via　a　narrow　strip　of　coastal　plain　with　the　great　alluvial　North　China　Plain　to　the　southwest．
The　Northeast　Plain　is　Chinas　major　soybeangrowing　area，　and　it　also　produces　corn　（maize），　rice，　wheat，sorghum，　sugar　beets，　and　flax．　After　1949，　large　state　farms　were　established　and　land　reclamation　projects　begun．　It　is　also　an　important　base　of　heavy　industry　with　an　extensive　system　of　railways，　and　it　is　rich　in　natural　resources　（iron　ore，　coal，　and　oil）．　The　major　industrial　cities　on　the　plain　are　Harbin，　Shenyang，　and　Changchun．　The　Sanjiang　Plain　at　the　confluence　of　the　Sungari，　Amur［4］，　and　Ussuri［5］　rivers　in　the　far　northeast　is　generally　considered　to　be　part　of　the　Northeast　Plain．
The　Taihang　Mountains
in　North　Plain
The　Penglai　Pavilion
in　Shandong　Peninsula
North　Plain
North　plain，　also　called　Yellow　Plain　or　HuangHuaiHai　Plain，　is　a　large　alluvial　plain　of　northern　China，　built　up　along　the　shore　of　the　Yellow　Sea　by　deposits　of　the　Yellow　River　and　the　Huaihai，　and　a　few　other　minor　rivers　of　northern　China．　Covering　an　area　of　about　158，000　square　miles　（409，500　km2），　most　of　which　is　below　160　feet　（50　metres）　above　the　sea　level，　it　is　one　of　the　most　densely　populated　areas　in　the　world；　since　earliest　times，　it　has　been　a　major　focus　of　Chinese　（Han）　culture．　The　plain　is　bordered　on　the　north　by　the　Yan　Mountains，　on　the　west　by　the　Taihang　Mountains　and　the　Henan　highlands，　and　on　the　southwest　by　the　Tongbai　and　Dabie　mountains．　To　the　south　it　merges　into　the　Yangtze　Plain．　From　northeast　to　southeast　it　fronts　the　Bo　Hai，　the　hills　of　Shandong　Peninsula，　and　the　Yellow　Sea．　Most　of　the　rivers　flow　across　the　plain　on　elevated　beds　that　are　above　the　surrounding　areas．　Beijing，　the　national　capital，　is　located　on　the　northwest　edge　of　the　plain，　and　Tianjin，　an　important　industrial　city　and　commercial　port，　is　situated　near　the　northeast　coast．　The　Grand　Canal，　beginning　at　Beijing，　crosses　the　eastern　part　of　the　plain　and　then　continues　to　the　south　and　southeast　to　Suzhou　and　Hangzhou．
The　North　China　Plain　is　the　gift　of　the　Yellow　River　and　the　other　streams　which　flow　out　from　northwestern　China．　This　fertile　plain　is　a　region　of　wide　diversification　in　crops．　Onequarter　to　onehalf　of　the　land　is　sown　to　winter　wheat　in　October，　the　amount　being　greater　in　the　south．　Barley　and　beans　are　also　winter　crops．　Kaoliang　（Sorghum）　is　the　leading　springplanted　crop．　Millet　is　slightly　less　important，　although　locally　it　may　exceed　kaoliang．　Cotton　and　hemp　are　scattered　widely．　Summer　cropping　consists　of　corn，　millet，　soybean，　sweet　potatoes，　peanuts，　and　sesame．　Tobacco　is　also　locally　important．
South　（Hills）
East　of　the　Tibetan　Plateau，　deeply　folded　mountains　fan　out　toward　the　Sichuan　Basin，　which　is　ringed　by　mountains　in　1，0003，000　m　elevations．　The　floor　of　the　basin　has　an　average　elevation　of　500　m　and　is　home　to　one　of　the　most　densely　farmed　and　populated　regions　of　China．　The　Sichuan　Basin　is　capped　in　the　north　by　the　eastward　continuation　of　the　Kunlun　range，　the　Qinling　and　Dabashan．　The　Qinling　and　Dabashan　ranges　form　a　major　northsouth　division　across　China　Proper，　the　traditional　core　area　of　China．　Southeast　of　the　Tibetan　Plateau　and　south　of　the　Sichuan　Basin　is　the　YunnanGuizhou　Plateau，　which　occupies　much　of　southwest　China．　This　plateau，　with　an　average　elevation　of　2，000　m，　is　known　for　limestone　karst　landscape．
The　core　of　South　China　is　the　fertile　Yangtze　Plain—often　divided　into　middle　and　lower　parts．　About　70　percent　of　the　Yangtze　Plain　is　cultivated．　Rice　is　the　major　crop　and　it　has　long　been　the　primary　commercial　grain；　the　other　main　crop　is　winter　wheat．　The　majority　of　South　Chinas　population　is　located　on　or　near　it；　it　contains　nearly　all　of　the　regions　major　manufacturing　centers；　and　it　is　the　most　prosperous　part　of　South　China，　producing　more　wealth　than　the　rest　of　the　region　combined．
The　XinjiangMongolian　Uplands
The　XinjiangMongolian　Uplands　occupy　the　vast　desert　areas　of　northwestern　China．　Northwest　of　the　Tibetan　Plateau，　between　the　northern　slope　of　Kunlun　and　southern　slope　of　Tian　Shan，　is　the　vast　Tarim　Basin　of　Xinjiang．　The　Tarim　Basin，　the　largest　in　China，　measures　1，500　km　from　east　to　west　and　600　km　from　north　to　south　at　its　widest　parts．　Average　elevation　in　the　basin　is　1，000　m．　To　east，　the　basin　descends　into　the　HamiTurpan　Depression　of　eastern　Xinjiang，　where　the　dried　lake　bed　of　Lake　Ayding　at　-154　m　below　the　sea　level，　is　the　lowest　surface　point　in　China　and　the　third　lowest　in　the　world．　With　temperatures　that　have　reached　49．6　℃，　the　lake　bed　ranks　as　the　hottest　place　in　China．　North　of　Tian　Shan　is　Xinjiangs　second　great　basin，　the　Jungar．　The　Jungar　Basin　is　enclosed　to　the　north　by　the　Altay　Mountains　which　separates　Xinjiang　from　Russia　and　Mongolia．
Northeast　of　the　Tibetan　Plateau，　the　Altun　ShanQilian　Mountains　range　branches　off　the　Kunlun　and　creates　a　parallel　mountain　range　running　eastwest．　In　between　in　northern　Qinghai　is　the　Qaidam　Basin，　with　elevation　of　2，6003，000　m　and　numerous　brackish　and　salt　lakes．　North　of　the　Qilian　is　Hexi　Corridor　of　Gansu，　a　natural　passage　between　Xinjiang　and　China　Proper　that　was　part　of　the　ancient　Silk　Road　and　traversed　by　modern　highway　and　rail　lines　to　Xinjiang．　Further　north，　the　Inner　Mongolian　Plateau，　between　9001，500　m　in　elevation，　arcs　north　up　the　spine　of　China　and　becomes　the　Da　Hinggan　Range　of　Northeast　China．
Between　the　Qinling　and　the　Inner　Mongolian　Plateau　is　Loess　Plateau，　the　largest　of　its　kind　in　the　world，　covering　650，000　km2　in　Shaanxi，　parts　of　Gansu　and　Shanxi　provinces，　and　some　of　NingxiaHui　Autonomous　Region．　The　plateau　is　1，0001，500　m　in　elevation　and　is　filled　with　loess，　a　yellowish　loose　soil　that　travels　easily　in　the　wind．　Eroded　loess　silt　gives　the　Yellow　River　its　color　and　name．　The　Loess　Plateau　is　bound　to　the　east　by　the　Luliang　Mountain　of　Shanxi，　which　has　a　narrow　basin　running　north　to　south　along　the　Fen　River．　Further　east　is　the　Taihang　Mountains　of　Hebei，　the　dominant　topographical　feature　of　North　China．　Important　products　in　this　area　are　cotton，　tomatoes，　oat　and　so　forth．　In　the　more　arid　grasslands，　herding　of　goats　or　sheep　is　a　traditional　method　of　subsistence．
The　Tibetan　Highlands
Mount　Everest
This　region　lies　in　southwestern　China，　with　an　area　approximately　2　million　km2　and　an　average　elevation，　4，0005，000　m．　It　consists　of　a　vast　plateau　bordered　by　towering　mountains，　the　Himalaya　on　the　south，　the　Pamirs　on　the　west，　and　the　Kunlun　on　the　north．　The　worlds　highest　mountain，　Mount　Everest，　rises　29，028　feet　（8，848　metres）　above　the　sea　level　in　the　Himalaya　in　southern　Tibet．　Two　of　the　worlds　longest　rivers，　the　Yellow　River　and　the　Yangtze　River，　begin　in　the　highlands　and　flow　eastward　across　China　to　the　sea．
The　northern　and　central　parts　of　the　Tibetan　Highlands　（known　locally　as　Chang　Tang）　consist　of　flat　or　rolling　plains　（elevation　4，6005，200　m）　alternating　with　relatively　short　mountain　ranges．　The　ranges　have　broad，　flat　watersheds，　gentle　slopes　only　slightly　affected　by　erosional　processes，　and　numerous　bodies　of　rock　fragments．　Despite　its　enormous　altitude，　Chang　Tang　has　the　appearance　of　a　region　with　middlemountain　topography；　only　individual　peaks　that　rise　above　the　snow　line　have　glaciers　and　alpine　characteristics．　In　the　outlying　areas　of　the　Tibetan　Highlands，　especially　the　areas　adjacent　to　the　Tansiie　Shan　and　the　Himalayas，　the　elevation　of　the　plains　decreases　to　3，500　m，　and　the　plains　frequently　assume　the　form　of　intermontane　basins．　The　slopes　of　the　peripheral　ranges　are　precipitous　and　strongly　dissected，　the　river　valleys　（especially　in　the　east）　forming　deep　gorges．
The　Buddhist　Monastery—
the　Potala　Palace
The　most　important　crop　in　Tibet　is　barley．　Meat　dishes　are　likely　to　be　yak，　goat，　or　mutton，　often　dried，　or　cooked　into　a　spicy　stew　with　potatoes．Mustard　seed　is　cultivated　in　Tibet，　and　therefore　features　heavily　in　its　cuisine．　Yak　yogurt，　butter　and　cheese　are　frequently　eaten，　and　wellprepared　yogurt　is　considered　something　of　a　prestige　item．　Butter　tea　is　very　popular　to　drink．　The　beauty　of　Tibets　soaring　Himalayas，　the　warmth　of　its　nomadic　and　deeply　devout　people，　and　the　mysteries　of　its　ancient　Buddhist　monasteries　attract　tourists　all　over　the　world．
2．　Climate
Chinas　climate　is　extremely　diverse．　Since　the　country　covers　such　a　vast　geographical　area　that　stretches　across　35　degrees　of　latitude，　Chinas　climate　ranges　from　being　subtropical　in　the　south　to　subarctic　in　the　north．　Variations　in　land　elevation　also　contribute　to　the　extreme　climatic　differences．
Northeast　China　is　known　for　its　hot，　dry　summers　and　long，　cold　winters．　In　central　China，　the　summers　are　hot　and　humid，　with　heavy　rainfall　during　the　late　summer　months．　The　climate　on　the　YunnanGuizhou　High　Plateau　is　generally　mild，　with　warm　summers　and　cool　winters　and　with　very　little　rainfall．　Southern　Chinas　climate，　around　Hong　Kong　and　Guangdong　province，　is　considered　to　be　subtropical．　Rainfall　is　evenly　distributed　throughout　the　year．　Summers　are　long，　hot　and　humid　while　the　winters　are　short　with　cooler　temperatures．　On　the　Tibet　Qinghai　Plateau，　summer　is　short　and　moderately　warm　while　winters　can　get　very　cold　at　higher　altitudes．
In　general，　the　areas　north　of　the　Yangtze　River　have　extremely　cold　winters　but　somewhat　milder　summers．　The　central　area　around　the　Yangtze　River　Valley　has　long　hot　summers　with　heavy　precipitation　from　monsoons　and　typhoons．　Monsoons　are　the　winds　that　bring　rain　from　the　south　in　summer　and　snowstorms　from　the　north　in　winter．　Monsoons　have　been　the　source　of　massive　flooding　along　the　Yangtze　for　years．　Typhoons　typically　hit　the　southeast　coast　between　July　and　September．
Notes
1．　the　Downs:The　Downs　are　a　roadstead　or　area　of　sea　in　the　southern　North　Sea　near　the　English　Channel　off　the　east　Kent　coast，　between　the　North　and　the　South　Foreland　in　southern　England．
2．　the　Weald:　The　Weald　is　the　name　given　to　an　area　in　South　East　England　situated　between　the　parallel　chalk　escarpments　of　the　North　and　the　South　Downs．　The　Weald　was　once　a　vast　forest　covering　this　area．　The　name，　Old　English　in　origin，　signifies　woodland，　which　still　applies　today:　scattered　farms　and　villages　betray　the　Wealds　past，　often　in　their　names．
3．　the　Sungari　River:　The　Sungari　River　（the　Songhua　River）　is　a　river　in　Northeast　China，　and　is　the　largest　tributary　of　the　Heilong　River　（Amur），　flowing　about　1，434　km　from　Changbai　Mountains　through　Jilin　and　Heilongjiang　provinces．
4．　the　Amur　River:The　Amur　River　or　Heilong　Jiang　is　the　worlds　tenth　longest　river，　forming　the　border　between　the　Russian　Far　East　and　Northeastern　China　（Inner　Manchuria）．　The　largest　fish　species　in　the　Amur　is　the　kaluga，　attaining　a　length　as　great　as　5．6　metres．
5．　the　Ussuri　River:The　Ussuri　River　or　Wusuli　River　runs　in　Khabarovsk　and　Primorsky　Krais，　Russia，　and　in　the　southeast　of　Northeast　China．　It　is　approximately　897　km　long．　The　Ussuri　River　drains　to　the　Ussuri　basin，　which　covers　193，000　km2．　Its　waters　come　from　rain　（60%），　snow　（3035%）　and　subterranean　springs．
Glossary
sovereign　［svrin］　adj．　有主权的
moorland　［mulnd］　n．　高沼地；广袤的荒野
chalk　［tk］　n．　（地质）白垩地层；　石灰石
meadowland　［medulnd］　n．　草地；牧场
pasture　［pɑst］　n．　草地；　山坡；　牧场
rug　［rɡ］　vt．　用厚毯包裹
peninsular　［pininsjul］　adj．　半岛的
outcrop　［autkrp］　n．　（岩层等的）露头
loch　［lk］　n．　湖；　内河，　内湾
lurk　［lk］　vi．　潜伏；　埋伏；　潜藏
kilt　［kilt］　n．　（苏格兰高地男子穿的）褶叠短裙（通常用格子呢制作）
terrain　［tｒｅｉｎ］　n．　地形，　地面，　地域，　地带
Ulster［lst］n．　阿尔斯特（原为爱尔兰一地区）
archipelago［ɑkipeliｇu］　n．　（pl．　archipelagoes，　archipelagos）　多岛海区；　群岛，　列岛
physiographic　［ｆｉｚｉｕｒｆｉｋ］　adj．　地文学的，地形学的
sedimentary　［sedimentri］　adj．　沉积的
deposit　［dipzit］　n．　沉积物；　矿藏，　矿床
lynx　［liks］　n．　（pl．　lynx，　lynxes）猞猁狲，　山猫
wolverine　［wulvrin］　n．　狼獾，　豹熊
savanna　［svn］　n．　（美国东南部）无树平原
topography　［tpｇrfi］　n．　地形，　地势，　地貌
sawtooth　［stu］　n．　锯齿
gorge　［ｇd］　n．　峡，　峡谷
undulate　［ndjuleit］　vi．　（水面，　风中的麦田等）波动，　（土地等）起伏
homogeneous　［hmudinjs］　adj．　同种的，　同类的，　相似的
tributary　［tribjutri］　n．　支流
alluvial　［luvjl］　adj．　冲积的
sorghum　［sｇm］　n．　蜀黍，　高粱
beet　［bit］　n．　甜菜　［pl．　］［美］亚麻捆
flax　［flks］　n．　亚麻；　亚麻纱，　亚麻纤维
reclamation　［reklmein］　n．　开垦
confluence　［knfluns］　n．　合流；　汇流（处）
hemp　［hemp］　n．　大麻（纤维）
limestone　［laimstun］　n．　石灰石
karst　［kɑst］　n．　水蚀石灰岩地区
brackish　［brki］　adj．　含盐的；　碱化的
loess　［luis］　n．　黄土
subsistence　［sbsistns］　n．　生存，　生计；　给养
alpine　［lpain］　adj．　高山（性）的
peripheral　［prifrl］　adj．　周界的；　边缘的
precipitous　［prisipits］　adj．　险峻的，　陡峭的
mustard　［mstd］　n．　芥；　芥末；　芥菜酱
yak　［jk］　n．　牦牛（主要产于中国西藏）
yogurt　［jｕgt］　n．　酸奶；酸乳酪
nomadic　［numdik］　adj．　游牧的；　流浪的
devout　［divaut］　adj．　热诚的，　虔诚的
monsoon　［mnsun］　n．　季（节）风
Further　Reading
1）　Geography　of　Canada
http://en．wikipedia．org/wiki/Geography_of_Canada
http://faculty．marianopolis．edu/c．belanger/QuebecHistory/encyclopedia/GeogofCan．htm
2）　Geography　of　Australia
http://en．wikipedia．org/wiki/Geography_of_Australia
3）　Geography　of　New　Zealand
http://en．wikipedia．org/wiki/Geography_of_New_Zealand
http://www．tourism．net．nz/newzealand/aboutnewzealand/geography．html
Group　Tasks
Accounts　of　the　physical　features　of　one　country　or　another　are　accounts　of　place　and　time．　It　is　another　branch　of　geography　to　map　human　responses　to　the　terrain　and　this　brings　out　the　relationship　that　people　have　with　the　land，　which　may　vary　hugely．　It　is　a　vast　subject；　however，　it　might　be　interesting　to　consider　how　geography　affects　the　intellectual　inclinations　and　distribution　of　the　population．
In　groups　of　3　to　5，　consider　the　geography　of　China，　the　U.K.　and　the　U.S.　and　research　the　major　intellectual　centers　of　each　country．　See　if　you　can　draw　any　links　between　the　geography　of　the　countries　and　the　distribution　of　their　centers　of　learning．　Why，　for　instance　did　London　become　the　U.K.s　capital　city:　why　Washington，　or　Beijing?　Think　about　the　two　world　renowned　centers　of　learning　in　the　U.K.，　Oxford　and　Cambridge，　for　instance，　or　the　“Ivy　League”　Universities　of　the　U.S.，　Princeton，　Harvard　etc．，　or　Beijing，　Qufu　and　Nanjing　as　examples．
Can　we　establish　if　and　how　geography　influences　the　routes　through　which　these　（or　other）　centers　communicated　with　other　national　and　international　centers?　Can　we　say　how，　why　and　when　they　rose　and　fell　relative　to　neighbors　and　competitors?
Of　course，　this　could　be　a　vast　subject，　encompassing　the　history　of　civilizations，　politics　as　well　as　geography，　but　limit　your　research　and　discussions　to　consideration　of　how　physical　and　political　geography　affects　the　development　of　networks　of　academics，　merchants　and　diplomats，　for　this　will　also　be　a　map　of　how　communication　developed　in　the　three　countries　and　it　will　form　a　useful　and　interesting　base　upon　which　to　reflect　on　the　“facts”　you　have　been　given　and　to　deepen　your　awareness　of　the　interconnectedness　of　all　the　subjects　in　this　book．
Consider　sketching　the　main　features　of　your　discussions　onto　a　wall　chart　and　annotate　your　drawings；　then　share　your　process　and　findings　with　at　least　two　other　groups　to　see　how　others　interpret　the　task　and　what　they　conclude．
Chapter　2History
Section　AHistory　of　the　United　Kingdom
British　history　is　not　as　long　as　some　ancient　civilizations，　but　its　cultural　impact　is　widespread　and　deep　in　many　countries　throughout　the　world．
1．　Origin　of　the　British　Nation
Before　the　great　Ice　Age，　Great　Britain　was　joined　to　the　continent　of　Europe．　When　the　Ice　Age　ended　in　7，000　B．C．，　English　Channel　and　the　North　Sea　formed，　and　Britain　was　isolated　from　the　European　continent　and　became　an　island．　Early　British　history　was　a　history　of　invasion．　Up　to　Norman　Conquest，　the　British　island　was　invaded　by　migratory　tribes　off　and　on　who　were　living　along　the　southern　and　eastern　coastlines．　These　invaders　came　to　Britain，　settled　here，　and　created　early　British　civilization．
Iberians　and　the　Celtic　Invasion
Stonehenge
The　first　known　settlers　by　now　were　Iberians　who　came　from　Iberian　Peninsula　in　Mediterranean　in　around　2，500　B．C．.　Although　they　were　called　Iberians，　they　consisted　of　different　peoples．　The　Iberians　lived　in　Britain　during　the　Stone　and　Bronze　Ages．　They　began　the　early　agriculture　and　used　some　original　tools　made　of　stone．　At　the　same　time，　the　Iberians　built　the　mysterious　and　great　prehistoric　monument—Stonehenge，　which　stands　on　the　vast　Salisbury　plains，　and　it　still　remains　a　secret　that　how　the　original　settlers　built　and　what　it　used　to　do．
From　700　B．C．to　300　B．C.，　Celtic　tribes　from　territory　that　is　now　Germany　and　the　Netherlands　came　to　Britain　and　drove　the　Iberians　to　the　highlands　of　Wales，　Northwest　England　and　Scotland．　Compared　with　the　prior　settlers，　the　Celts　were　better　at　ironwork　and　art．　They　brought　their　own　language　and　government　style　with　them　and　imposed　them　on　the　settlers　in　the　south．　Their　government　style　was　based　on　the　basic　extended　families　or　clans　which　gradually　formed　tribes．　They　already　had　a　set　of　standards　of　protection　and　punishment，　which　showed　justice　among　the　extended　families　to　some　degree．　They　continued　to　develop　agriculture　slowly，　and　began　to　hunt　and　fish　although　at　the　same　time　they　still　used　herding，　weaving，　and　metalwork　left　by　Iberians．　Together　with　the　later　Germanic　tribes，　Celtic　civilization　laid　the　foundation　for　modern　British　history　and　culture．
Roman　Invasion
Chapter　2History　In　addition　to　the　Iberians　and　Celtic　invasions，　Roman　was　the　third　one　that　invaded　Britain．　In　contrast　to　the　previous　invaders，　Roman　conquerors　preferred　to　assimilate　Britain　rather　than　colonize　it．
In　55　B．C．，　the　Roman　leaders　Julius　Caesar　started　the　first　invasion　to　Britain；　however，　it　failed　because　of　the　bad　weather．　Just　one　year　later，　in　54　B．C．，　he　launched　a　second　attack　on　Britain．　It　was　a　military　success，　while　it　did　not　lead　to　Roman　occupation．　It　was　not　until　43　A．D．　that　Roman　took　complete　control　over　the　Britain　land．　At　that　time，　Claudius　was　the　Roman　Emperor．　Nevertheless，　the　Roman　legionnaires　were　also　confronted　with　severe　occupation．　For　the　next　hundred　years，　wars　and　civil　unrest　diverted　the　Roman　leaders　from　further　invasion．　The　Roman　left　Britain　in　410　A．D．，　because　their　own　country　was　going　to　collapse　and　soldiers　needed　to　protect　their　own　homeland．　In　the　process　of　Roman　invasion　of　Britain，　Britain　went　through　a　temporary　civilization．
The　Invasion　of　AngloSaxons
After　the　Romans　had　retreated，　the　AngloSaxons　began　to　invade　England．　They　came　from　what　is　now　called　Scandinavia　and　Germany．　The　AngloSaxons　killed　some　Celts　and　pushed　the　other　Celts　into　the　mountains　or　overseas　to　Ireland．　They　established　a　dominant　culture，　a　common　religion　and　a　common　form　of　government．
During　this　period，　the　king　who　was　selected　as　the　leader　did　not　have　all　the　power　to　make　the　decisions；　many　decisions　were　made　by　twelve　of　the　most　respected　men　within　each　village．　Few　of　the　decisions　had　been　written　down；　those　which　hadnt　been　written　down　were　called　Common　Law．　There　is　a　strong　oral　literary　tradition　and　Beowulf　is　a　famous　epic　which　survives　today．
About　the　religion　the　AngloSaxons　were　converted　from　PreChristian　to　Christianity．　Two　Irish　missionaries，　St．　Patrick　and　St．　Augustine，　brought　the　Christianity　into　England　and　Ireland．　Those　two　versions　of　Christianity　were　not　the　same．　One　stressed　the　government　of　churches　by　the　Roman　Pope　and　the　other　had　selfgoverned　churches．　The　AngloSaxon　kings　gave　the　land　to　bishops　and　monasteries　and　forced　people　to　give　the　tax　to　Roman　Catholic　Church．
During　the　600800　years，　the　Heparchy［1］　（Kent，　Sussex，　Wessex，　Essex，　Northumbria，　East　Anglia　and　Mercia）　was　established　because　of　the　fight　between　the　powerful　tribes．
The　Invasion　of　Vikings
Alfred　the　Great
At　the　end　of　8th　century，　the　Vikings　from　Norway，　Sweden　and　Denmark　invaded　the　Great　Britain．　These　marauders　came　with　their　keeled　boats　through　the　Danube　River　and　the　Mediterranean．　Ireland，　Scotland　and　Northern　England　were　attacked　by　the　marauders　from　Norway　and　Sweden，　the　southeastern　England　was　invaded　by　the　people　from　Denmark．　Later　the　Vikings　established　small　kingdoms　in　these　places．
Later　these　small　kingdoms　were　united　by　Alfred　the　Great　（849899）　who　was　the　king　of　Wessex．　He　was　the　first　one　in　the　history　of　Britain　who　called　himself　as　the　king　of　England，　and　he　had　many　achievements．　He　defeated　Danish　attempts　to　expand　“the　Danelaw”［2］，　and　regained　land，　including　London；　he　built　a　navy　and　established　strong　garrisons　for　protection；　he　also　founded　the　first　public　schools　for　the　sons　of　noblemen　and　magistrates；　meanwhile　he　began　the　Chronicle．　His　son　Edward　the　Elder　and　his　grandson　Athelstan　were　the　first　true　kings　of　England．
William　the　Conqueror
2．　The　Founding　of　the　Nation
The　Norman　Conquest
The　most　important　historical　episode　in　British　history　is　the　Norman　Conquest．　The　Norman　conquest　of　England　began　in　September　1066　with　the　invasion　of　England　by　William，　Duke　of　Normandy．　He　became　known　as　the　Conqueror　after　his　victory　at　the　Battle　of　Hastings　in　October　1066，　who　defeated　the　king　Harold　Ⅱ　of　England．　On　December　25，1066，　William　was　crowned　William　Ⅰ　at　Westminster　Abbey　in　London．　By　early　1071，　William　had　secured　control　of　most　of　England，　although　rebellions　and　resistance　continued　to　approximately　1088．
The　Norman　Conquest　largely　removed　the　native　ruling　class　by　replacing　it　with　a　foreign，　Frenchspeaking　monarchy，　aristocracy，　and　clerical　hierarchy，　which　brought　about　a　transformation　of　the　English　language　and　the　culture　of　England　in　a　new　era—Norman　England．
After　the　Norman　invasion，　people　in　Britain　spoke　three　major　languages．　The　clergy　spoke　and　wrote　Latin，　the　language　of　Roman；　the　rulers，　military　leaders　and　leaders　spoke　French；　and　the　common　people　spoke　a　variety　of　German　dialects，　known　as　old　English．
The　Consolidation　and　Development　of　Monarchy
Henry　Ⅱ
During　the　rule　of　Williams　next　two　successors，　strong　and　centralized　government　continued　in　a　feudalized　society．　Henry　Ⅱ　was　the　king　of　England　and　Normandy，　and　at　his　time，　almost　2/3　Frances　were　under　his　rule．　Henry　Ⅱ　made　great　contribution　to　the　laws　at　that　time，　because　he　introduced　the　jury　system　to　British　law，　and　he　was　called　the　founding　father　of　the　British　common　law．　Besides，　the　birth　of　the　parliament　gave　more　powers　and　rights　to　the　common　people，　and　the　basis　of　the　political　system　was　established．　From　1343，　it　was　divided　into　two　chambers:　the　upper　house　（the　House　of　Lords），　and　the　lower　house　（the　House　of　Commons）．　The　essential　spirit　was　freedom　and　democracy．
Henry　Ⅱs　younger　son　John　was　succeeded　to　throne　after　his　elder　son，　and　at　his　time，　the　kings　power　was　growing．　In　1204，　John　lost　Normandy　and　most　of　his　French　possessions．　Then　on　June　15，　1216，　John　was　forced　to　accept　the　famous　document　the　Great　Charter　［3］　which　limited　the　power　of　king　and　included　sixtythree　clauses．　Although　the　Great　Charter　had　been　long　popularly　regarded　as　the　foundation　of　English　liberties，　it　was　a　statement　of　the　feudal　and　legal　relationships　between　the　Crown　and　the　barons，　protected　the　freedom　of　the　Church　and　the　rights　of　citizens，　and　limited　the　power　of　the　king．　Its　two　general　principles　were　that　the　king　was　subjected　to　the　law　and　the　king　should　observe　the　law．
Edward　Ⅰ　was　King　of　England　from　1272　to　1307，　and　he　was　an　effective　ruler，　because　he　expanded　power　in　England．　During　his　reign，　the　power　of　royal　courts　increased　while　that　of　the　baronial　courts　deceased．
In　a　word，　the　three　kings　Henry　Ⅱ，　King　John　and　Edward　directly　or　indirectly　contributed　to　the　development　of　British　politics　from　Monarchy　to　constitutional　Monarchy．
The　Decline　of　Feudalism
During　the　Feudal　society，　there　were　several　wars．　The　most　famous　two　were　the　Hundred　Years　War　and　the　Wars　of　the　Roses．
The　Hundred　Years　War　was　a　series　of　wars　between　France　and　England　from　1337　to　1453．　Although　it　was　called　the　Hundred　Years　War，　in　fact，　it　lasted　about　116　years．　The　war　had　its　roots　in　a　dynastic　disagreement　dating　back　to　the　time　of　William　the　Conqueror．　As　the　rulers　of　Normandy　and　other　lands　on　the　continent，　the　English　kings　owed　feudal　homage　to　the　king　of　France．　In　1337，　Edward　III　of　England　refused　to　pay　homage　to　Philip　Ⅵ　of　France，　leading　to　the　French　king　claiming　confiscation　of　Edwards　lands　in　Aquitaine，　and　the　war　broke　out．　The　attempt　by　Talbot　to　retake　Gascony，　was　crushed　by　Jean　Bureau　and　his　cannon　at　the　Battle　of　Castillon　in　1453，　which　was　considered　the　last　battle　of　the　Hundred　Years　War．　The　Hundred　Years　War　had　a　significant　impact　on　the　English　society．　It　promoted　the　concept　of　English　nationalism　and　the　development　of　the　textile　industry．　In　addition，　the　war　raised　the　social　position　of　the　bourgeois　class．　All　these　factors　contributed　to　the　decline　of　feudalism　in　Britain．
During　the　Hundred　Years　War，　Britain　was　affected　by　the　Black　Death．　The　bubonic　plague　broke　out　firstly，　which　killed　many　English．　Hence，　the　number　of　English　population　decreased　seriously，　leading　to　crops　rotted　in　the　field；　farm　land　not　cultivated；　and　food　prices　rose．　The　inflation　of　prices　caused　hardship　to　the　workers，　and　many　people　crowded　into　the　cities．　The　labor　shortage　continued　and　was　mostly　responsible　for　the　decrease　of　feudalism　and　increase　of　centralized　monarchy．　The　Black　Plague，　war，　famine，　and　death　had　ravaged　the　countries．　People　began　searching　for　an　explanation，　and　the　current　church　could　offer　none．　The　Hundred　Years　War　was　a　part　of　a　series　of　events　that　shifted　peoples　thinking　and　paved　the　way　for　the　period　of　Reformation　that　would　follow．
The　Wars　of　the　Roses
The　Wars　of　the　Roses　were　a　series　of　wars　for　the　throne　of　the　England　between　supporters　of　two　rival　branches　of　the　royal　House　of　Plantagenet:　the　House　of　Lancaster　（with　red　roses　as　their　symbol）　and　the　House　of　York　（with　white　roses　as　their　symbol）．　Both　houses　battled　for　power，　wealth　and　ultimately　the　throne，　and　it　lasted　thirty　years　from　1455　to　1485．　At　last，　the　House　of　Lancaster　won　and　their　leader　Henry　Tutor　became　the　King　Henry　Ⅶ．　Henry　Ⅶ　united　the　two　houses　together　by　marrying　Elizabeth，　a　daughter　of　Yorkist　Edward　IV，　and　made　a　new　symbol，　the　Tudor　rose，　which　also　meant　the　end　of　the　Wars　of　the　Roses．　After　the　unity，　the　economy　developed　quickly，　and　the　agriculture　began　to　change　from　the　feudal　agriculture　to　the　capitalist　agriculture，　which　made　the　industry　and　manufacture　in　England　develop　very　quickly．
3．　Transition　to　the　Modern　Age
The　Tudor　Monarchy
The　Tudor　family　ruled　England　from　1485　to　1603．　Under　the　Tudors，　England　became　a　national　state　with　an　efficient　centralized　government，　and　started　changing　from　a　medieval　to　modern　country．
The　New　Monarchy
Henry　Ⅷ
Henry　Ⅶ　was　the　first　monarch　of　the　Tudor　Monarch．　By　careful　diplomacy，　Henry　Ⅶ　gave　England　peace　at　home　and　abroad，　which　enabled　him　to　build　up　Englands　navy　and　foreign　trade．　One　of　the　main　concerns　of　Henry　Ⅶ　during　his　reign　was　the　reaccumulation　of　the　funds　in　the　royal　treasury．　Through　his　strict　monetary　strategy，　he　was　able　to　leave　a　considerable　amount　of　money　in　the　Treasury　for　his　son　and　successor，　Henry　Ⅷ．
Religious　Reformation
Henry　Ⅷ　was　responsible　for　the　religious　reform　of　the　church．　The　reform　began　as　a　struggle　for　a　divorce　and　ended　in　freedom　from　the　Papacy．　Henry　Ⅷ　wanted　to　divorce　Catherine　of　Aragon　but　the　Pope　refused．　Henrys　reform　was　to　get　rid　of　the　English　Churchs　connection　with　the　Pope，　and　to　make　an　independent　Church　of　England．　He　dissolved　all　the　Englands　monasteries　and　nunneries　because　they　were　more　loyal　to　the　Pope　than　to　their　kings．　The　laws　such　as　the　Act　of　Succession　of　1534　and　the　Act　of　Supremacy　of　1535　made　his　reform　possible．　He　established　the　Church　of　England　as　the　national　church　of　the　country，　and　he　made　himself　the　supreme　head　of　the　Church　of　England．　Henry　Ⅷs　reform　stressed　the　power　of　the　monarch　and　strengthened　his　position；　his　attack　on　the　Popes　power　encouraged　many　critics　of　abuses　of　the　Catholic　Church　and　helped　England　move　away　from　Catholicism　towards　Protestantism．
Henry　Ⅷs　son　Edward　Ⅵ　carried　out　drastic　religious　change．　His　switch　to　Protestant　theology　and　his　drastic　reform　had　been　called　“The　Reformation”　in　English　history．
Mary　Tudor
After　the　death　of　Edward　Ⅵ　in　1553，　his　elder　sister　Mary　Tudor　became　the　Queen．　Mary，　like　her　mother　Catherine，　was　a　devout　Catholic．　She　married　Philip　Ⅱ　of　Spain　and　reestablished　Catholicism　and　brought　the　Church　back　under　the　power　of　Rome．　Mary　persecuted　and　burnt　many　Protestants　for　their　insistence　on　Protestant　views，　so　she　was　given　the　nickname　“Bloody　Mary”．
Mary　ruled　for　only　a　few　years　and　in　1558　she　died．　Her　ostensibly　Protestant　sister，　Elizabeth　Ⅰ，　became　Queen．　Elizabeths　religious　reform　was　a　compromise　of　views．　She　broke　Marys　ties　with　Rome　and　restored　her　fathers　independent　Church　of　England，　i．e．　keeping　to　Catholic　doctrines　and　practices　but　to　be　free　of　the　Papal　control．　Her　religious　settlement　was　unacceptableElizabeth　Ⅰ
to　both　the　extreme　Protestants　known　as　Puritans　and　to　ardent　Catholics．　For　nearly　30　years，　Elizabeth　Ⅰ　successfully　played　off　against　each　other，　the　two　great　Catholic　powers，　France　and　Spain，　and　prevented　England　from　getting　involved　in　any　major　European　conflicts．　Through　her　marriage　alliances　which　were　never　materialized，　Elizabeth　Ⅰ　managed　to　maintain　a　friendly　relationship　with　France，　so　England　was　able　to　face　the　danger　from　Spain．
The　English　Renaissance
William　Shakespeare
The　English　Renaissance　was　a　cultural　and　artistic　movement　in　England　dating　from　the　late　15th　and　early　16th　centuries　to　the　early　17th　century．　Like　most　of　northern　Europe，　England　saw　little　of　these　developments　until　more　than　a　century　later．　Renaissance　style　and　ideas　were　slow　in　penetrating　England，　and　the　Elizabeth　era　in　the　second　half　of　the　16th　century　is　usually　regarded　as　the　height　of　the　English　Renaissance．　Renaissance　represented　the　transition　in　Europe　from　the　Middle　Ages　to　Modern　era．
Though　Renaissance　came　to　England　much　later　than　to　the　rest　of　Europe，　yet　once　it　did，　it　was　to　produce　such　towering　figures　as　William　Shakespeare，　Edmund　Spenser，　Sir　Thomas　More，　Francis　Bacon，　and　to　produce　a　variety　of　glorious　works　in　world　literary　heritage．　In　different　countries，　Renaissance　found　varied　emphases．　The　impact　on　Italy　and　France　was　mainly　felt　in　fine　arts　and　science，　and　in　Germany　it　was　religion．　Despite　all　these　features，　however，　the　English　Renaissance　was　largely　literary，　achieving　its　finest　expression　in　what　is　known　as　Elizabethan　Drama．
The　Civil　Wars　and　Their　Consequences
Because　of　the　absolute　rule　of　Charles，　the　confrontation　between　Charles　Ⅰ　and　the　parliament　developed　into　the　civil　war．　The　war　began　on　August　22，　1642　and　ended　in　1651．　Charles　Ⅰ　was　condemned　to　death．　The　English　Civil　War　is　also　called　the　Puritan　Revolution．　It　has　been　seen　as　a　conflict　between　the　parliament　and　the　King，　and　a　conflict　between　economic　interests　of　the　Crown　and　that　of　the　urban　middle　class．　The　latter　class　coincided　with　their　religious　（Puritan）　ideology　while　the　former　correspondingly　allied　with　Anglican　religious　belief．　The　English　Civil　War　not　only　overthrew　feudal　system　in　England　but　also　shook　the　foundation　of　the　feudal　rules　in　Europe．
The　Restoration
When　Oliver　Cromwell　died　in　1658　and　was　succeeded　by　his　son，　Richard，　the　regime　began　to　collapse．　One　of　Cromwells　generals，　George　Monck，　occupied　London　and　arranged　for　new　parliamentary　elections．　The　Parliament　that　was　elected　in　1660　resolved　the　crisis　by　asking　the　late　Kings　son　to　return　from　his　exile　in　France　as　King　Charles　Ⅱ．　It　was　called　the　Restoration．
The　Glorious　Revolution　of　1688
In　1685　Charles　Ⅱ　died　and　was　succeeded　by　his　brother　James　Ⅱ．　James　was　brought　up　in　exile　in　Europe，　and　he　was　a　Catholic．　He　hoped　to　rule　without　giving　up　his　personal　religious　views，　but　England　was　no　more　tolerant　of　a　Catholic　king　in　1688．　Therefore，　the　English　politicians　rejected　James　Ⅱ，　and　appealed　to　a　Protestant　king，　William　of　Orange，　to　invade　and　take　the　English　throne．　William　landed　in　England　in　1688．　The　takeover　was　relatively　smooth，　with　no　bloodshed，　nor　any　execution　of　the　king．　This　was　known　as　the　Glorious　Revolution，　because　it　was　bloodless　and　successful．　In　the　following　year，　Parliament　passed　the　Bill　of　Rights，　which　limited　the　power　of　the　monarch　and　guaranteed　the　authority　of　Parliament．　Parliament　succeeded　in　removing　a　ruling　monarch　they　didnt　like　and　establishing　a　system　known　as　constitutional　monarchy．
4．　The　Rise　and　Fall　of　the　British　Empire
The　Industrial　Revolution
The　Industrial　Revolution　may　be　defined　as　the　application　of　powerdriven　machinery　to　manufacturing．　In　the　18th　century，　all　of　Western　Europe　began　to　industrialize　rapidly，　and　in　England　the　process　was　most　highly　accelerated．　Englands　head　start　may　be　attributed　to　a　number　of　simultaneous　factors　or　favorable　conditions　which　no　other　country　could　match，　including　stable　government，　economic　freedom，　available　capital，　and　mobile　labor．
The　basic　ground　for　Industrial　Revolution　was　prepared　by　the　Glorious　Revolution　which　ensured　the　political　stability　in　the　country　and　paved　the　way　for　the　rapid　growth　of　capitalism　in　England．The　laissez　faire　policy［4］　and　domestic　tarifffree　commerce　not　only　encouraged　the　development　of　production　but　also　helped　the　expansion　of　markets，　domestic　and　foreign．　The　capitalists　accomplished　their　“primitive　accumulation　of　capital”　through　plunder　and　exploitation　during　the　period　between　1688　and　the　mid　18th　century．　At　home，　this　was　mainly　done　by　the　large　scale　Enclosure　Movement．　Many　small　landowners　were　deprived　of　their　property，　and　the　new　class　of　“landless　laborers”　had　to　seek　paid　employment　from　large　landowners　or　to　find　work　in　the　rapidly　growing　industrial　areas．　Abroad，　from　the　colonies　in　America　and　India，　Britain　acquired　enormous　wealth　with　which　to　develop　its　industries．　The　colonies　provided　Britain　with　necessary　raw　materials　and　a　large　market　for　its　industrial　products．　Such　a　continuous　increase　of　colonial　wealth　and　trade　provided　a　constantly　rising　market　for　British　goods．　It　was　this　demand　for　everincreasing　quantities　of　goods　that　forced　men　to　use　their　wits　on　the　mass　production　of　commodities　and　it　was　the　basic　cause　of　the　Industrial　Revolution．
The　Spinning　Jenny
The　First　Industrial　Revolution　began　in　the　textile　industry　and　was　marked　by　a　series　of　inventions．　They　were　the　Spinning　Jenny，　the　water　frame，　the　power　loom　and　the　steam　engine．　These　inventions　completed　the　mechanization　of　the　textile　industry　and　prepared　the　way　for　a　new　system　of　production:　large　scale　industry．
With　these　developments　came　a　need　for　a　cheap　means　of　transportation．　To　meet　it，　entrepreneurs　invested　in　digging　canals　to　ship　goods　to　market．　In　1814，　the　steam　locomotive　was　invented．　The　first　railway　was　completed　in　1825．　By　1850，　Great　Britain　had　established　a　railroad　system　encompassing　over　10，000　kilometers　of　track．　Meanwhile，　it　had　also　built　a　large　merchant　fleet，　which　carried　Britishmanufactured　goods　to　all　parts　of　the　world．
By　the　middle　of　the　19th　century，　the　Industrial　Revolution　was　accomplished　in　Great　Britain．　The　Industrial　Revolution　brought　about　dramatic　changes　in　nearly　every　aspect　of　British　society，　including　economy，　politics，　social　structures　and　institutions．　Its　industrial　productivity　increased　dramatically．　As　a　result，　British　goods　almost　achieved　a　monopoly　position　in　the　world　market　and　Britain　became　the　“workshop　of　the　world”　by　1830．　The　country　also　underwent　a　process　of　mass　urbanization，　and　many　new　cities　sprang　up，　such　as　Manchester，　Leeds，　Birmingham　and　Sheffield．　The　Industrial　Revolution　also　created　changes　in　the　class　structure．　The　capitalist　class　replaced　the　old　nobility　as　the　most　important　force　in　the　country，　while　the　industrial　working　class，　the　proletariat，　worked　and　lived　in　an　appalling　condition．
The　Formation　of　the　Empire
The　foundation　of　the　empire　was　already　laid　in　the　time　of　Queen　Elizabeth　Ⅰ．　But　the　empire　came　into　being　during　the　Industrial　Revolution　in　the　18th　and　19th　centuries．
By　the　time　Queen　Victoria　ascended　the　throne　in　1837，　Britain　had　been　an　empire　known　as　the　First　British　Empire．　It　included　the　colonies　in　Canada，　Australia，　New　Zealand，　India　and　many　small　states　in　the　West　Indies．　These　early　colonies　were　usually　started　by　individual　business　people　for　the　purpose　of　trade．
Queen　Victoria
The　Victorian　Age　witnessed　the　establishment　of　the　Second　British　Empire．　Queen　Victoria　ruled　from　1837　to　her　death　in　1901，　the　longest　reign　of　any　monarch　in　British　history．　During　Victorias　reign，　especially　from　the　1870s，　the　British　government　adopted　a　very　aggressive　foreign　policy　known　as　New　Imperialism．　In　order　to　plunder　available　resources，　the　government　sent　British　fleet　anywhere　in　the　world　to　dominate　the　local　people．　British　aggression　against　China　was　also　in　line　with　this　pattern．　The　British　government　waged　the　Opium　War　against　China　and　forced　the　Qing　government　to　sign　the　Treaty　of　Nanking　in　1842．　By　the　end　of　the　19th　century，　the　British　Empire　included　a　quarter　of　the　global　population　and　nearly　a　quarter　of　the　worlds　landmass．　It　became　the　largest　empire　in　human　history，　“an　empire　on　which　the　sun　never　set”．
Britain　in　the　Two　World　Wars
By　the　beginning　of　the　20th　century，　the　world　had　entered　the　period　of　imperialism．　Britains　dominance　was　challenged　by　other　countries，　because　they　had　also　established　their　large　manufacturing　industries，　and　they　were　also　in　need　of　foreign　markets　and　raw　materials．　A　conflict　of　interests　and　colonial　rivalry　divided　Europe　into　two　camps:　“the　Central　Powers”，　including　Germany，　AustriaHungary，　Ottoman　Empire　and　Bulgaria；　“the　Allied　Powers”，　including　the　British　Empire，　France，　the　Russian　Empire，　Italy　and　the　U．S．．　World　War　Ⅰ　from　1914　to　1918　was　primarily　between　two　European　Power　blocs．　Ultimately，　more　than　32　countries　were　involved，　28　of　which　supported　the　Allied　Powers．　The　War　ended　with　the　victory　of　the　Allies．　During　the　war，　the　Britain　lost　much．　Apart　from　the　loss　of　manpower，　there　had　been　considerable　disruption　in　economy　and　society．　Though　victorious，　Britain　came　out　of　the　war　with　a　huge　national　debt，　and　its　business　was　slack．　By　1931　Britain　entered　the　Great　Depression，　which　made　its　position　in　the　capitalist　world　further　weakened．
Winston　Churchill
With　the　rise　of　the　Nazi　Party　in　Germany，　Hitler　and　Nazism　showed　off　their　aggressive　momentum　in　Europe．　The　German　troops　invaded　Poland　on　September　1，　1939．　Chamberlain，　the　Prime　Minister，　found　his　policy　of　appeasement　of　German　aggression　was　no　longer　tenable，　and　was　forced　to　declare　war　on　Germany　on　September　3，　1939．　The　next　year　Chamberlain　resigned　and　Winston　Churchill　became　the　Prime　Minister．　The　whole　nation　was　mobilized　and　industries　were　centered　on　war　production．　In　1940，　the　Germany　Air　Force　attacked　the　airfields　in　southeastern　England，　and　it　destroyed　many　cities．　It　was　the　most　critical　period　of　the　war　for　Britain．　But　the　fighter　air　planes　of　the　Royal　Air　Force　wore　down　the　German　strength，　and　at　last　the　Germans　were　forced　to　abandon　their　plans　of　invasion．　In　1941　the　pressure　was　somewhat　alleviated　for　England．　The　Nazi　invasion　of　the　Soviet　Union　gave　new　hope　to　Britain．　The　Japanese　attack　on　Pearl　Harbor　brought　the　U．S．　into　the　war．　A　Grand　Alliance　was　formed．　With　the　unified　efforts　of　AntiNazi　forces，　Germany　surrendered　unconditionally　on　May　7，　1945，　and　Japan　was　forced　to　surrender　unconditionally　in　August．　World　War　Ⅱ　was　over．　Great　Britain　had　triumphed　over　all　her　enemies，　but　at　great　costs—much　bloodshed　and　heavy　loss　of　wealth．
The　Fall　of　the　Empire
One　of　the　most　farreaching　consequences　of　the　wars　was　that　it　hastened　the　end　of　Britains　empire．　Most　of　the　colonies　had　joined　in　the　war　and　contributed　to　the　victory．　They　were　tempered　by　the　war　and　consequently　a　large　independence　movement　swept　the　world　soon　after　the　war．　The　process　of　decolonization　in　Africa　and　Asia　accelerated　during　the　late　1950s，　after　which，　of　Britains　Asian　possessions，　only　Hong　Kong　（returned　to　China　in　1997）　was　still　under　British　control．　The　British　Empire　faded　away，　to　be　replaced　by　the　Commonwealth　of　Nations，　a　loosely　organized　community　of　former　British　colonies．
5．　Britain　since　World　War　Ⅱ
After　World　War　Ⅱ，　the　Labor　Party　under　Clement　Attlee　came　into　power　and　created　a　comprehensive　welfare　state，　with　the　establishment　of　the　National　Health　Service，　entitling　free　healthcare　to　all　British　citizens　and　other　reforms　included　the　introduction　of　oldage　pensions，　free　education　at　all　levels，　sickness　benefits　and　unemployment　benefits，　most　of　which　was　covered　by　the　newly　introduced　national　insurance，　paid　by　all　workers．　The　Bank　of　England，　railways，　heavy　industry，　coal　mining　and　public　utilities　were　all　nationalized．
Margaret　Thatcher
The　Conservatives　returned　to　power　in　1951，　accepting　most　of　Labors　postwar　reforms　and　presiding　over　13　years　of　economic　stability．　Labor　returned　to　power　under　Harold　Wilson　in　1964　and　oversaw　a　series　of　social　reforms　including　the　decriminalization　of　homosexuality　and　abortion，　the　relaxing　of　divorce　laws　and　the　banning　of　capital　punishment．　Edward　Heath　returned　the　Conservatives　to　power　from　1970　to　1974　and　oversaw　the　decimalization　of　British　currency，　the　ascension　of　Britain　to　the　European　Economic　Community　and　the　height　of　the　Troubles　in　Northern　Ireland．　In　the　wake　of　the　oil　crisis　and　a　miners　strike，　Heath　introduced　the　threeday　working　week　to　conserve　power．
Labor　made　a　return　to　power　in　1974　but　a　series　of　strikes　carried　out　by　trade　unions　over　the　winter　of　1978/1979　（known　as　the　Winter　of　Discontent）　paralyzed　the　country　and　as　Labor　lost　its　majority　in　parliament，　a　general　election　was　called　in　1979　which　took　Margaret　Thatcher　to　power　and　began　18　years　of　Conservative　government．　Thatcher　initially　pursued　monetary　policies　and　went　on　to　privatize　many　of　Britains　nationalized　companies　such　as　BT　Group，　British　Gas　plc，　British　Airways　and　British　Steel．　The　controversial　Community　Charge　（poll　tax），　used　to　fund　local　government　attributed　to　Thatcher　being　ousted　from　her　own　party　and　replaced　as　Prime　Minister　by　John　Major　in　1990．
David　Cameron
Major　replaced　the　Poll　Tax　with　the　council　tax　and　oversaw　British　involvement　in　the　Gulf　War．　Despite　a　recession，　Major　led　the　Conservatives　to　a　Surprising　victory　in　1992．　The　event　of　Black　Wednesday　in　1992，　party　disunity　over　the　European　Union　and　several　scandals　involving　Conservative　politicians　led　to　Labor　under　Tony　Blair　winning　a　landslide　election　victory　in　1997．　Blair　led　Britain　into　the　controversial　Iraq　War，　which　contributed　to　his　eventual　resignation　in　2007，　when　he　was　succeeded　by　his　Chancellor　Gordon　Brown．　A　global　recession　in　the　late　2000s　led　to　Labor　being　defeated　in　the　2010　election　and　replaced　by　a　ConservativeLiberal　Democrat　coalition，　headed　by　David　Cameron，　which　has　pursued　a　large　series　of　public　spending　cuts　to　help　reduce　Britains　budget　deficit．　Cameron　committed　his　government　to　Britains　continuing　role　in　Afghanistan　and　stated　that　he　hopes　to　remove　British　troops　from　the　region　by　2015．
On　September　18,　2014,　a　referendum　was　held　in　Scotland　on　whether　to　leave　the　U.K.　and　become　an　independent　country.　The　referendum　resulted　in　Scotland　voting　by　55%　to　45%　to　remain　part　of　the　U.K..
Theresa　May
On　February　20,　2016,　David　Cameron　announced　that　a　referendum　on　the　UKs　membership　of　the　EU　(European　Union)　would　be　held　on　June　23,　2016.　The　result　of　the　referendum　was　in　favor　of　the　country　leaving　the　EU　with　51.9%　of　voters　wanting　to　leave.　After　the　result　was　declared,　Cameron　announced　that　he　would　resign　by　October.　In　the　event,　he　stood　down　on　July　13,　with　Theresa　May　becoming　Prime　Minister.
On　July　12,　2018,　the　British　government　published　a　longawaited　white　paper　on　Brexit　(Britain　exiting　from　the　EU),　seeking　to　create　a　free　trade　area　with　the　EU.　Secretary　of　State　for　Exiting　the　European　Union,　Dominic　Raab　told　the　House　of　Commons　that　leaving　the　EU　may　involve　both　challenges　and　opportunities　and　the　country　may　rise　to　the　challenges　and　grasp　the　opportunities.
Section　BHistory　of　the　United　States　of　America
1．　PreColonial　America
Archeologists　believe　that　the　presentday　U．S．　was　first　populated　by　people　migrating　from　Asia　via　the　Bering　Land　Bridge　sometime　between　50，000　and　11，000　years　ago．　These　people　became　the　indigenous　people　who　inhabited　the　Americas　prior　to　the　arrival　of　European　explorers　in　the　1，400s　and　who　are　now　called　Native　Americans．
One　recorded　European　exploration　of　the　Americas　was　by　Christopher　Columbus　in　1492，　sailing　on　behalf　of　the　King　and　the　Queen　of　Spain．　He　sailed　west　in　search　of　a　new　sea　route　to　India．　However，　he　failed　to　reach　India　but　reached　a　group　of　islands　which　now　are　called　Bahamas．　He　mistook　these　islands　for　part　of　India　and　called　the　people　there　Indians．　Another　important　figure　in　the　process　of　the　discovery　of　the　New　World　was　Amerigo　Verspucci．　He　was　not　the　discoverer　of　the　new　continent，　but　it　was　he　who　first　confirmed　the　fact　that　a　new　continent　rather　than　Asia　had　been　discovered．　Therefore，　the　newlyfound　continent　was　later　named　after　him　and　became　known　as　America．　After　a　period　of　exploration　by　various　European　countries，　Dutch，　Spanish，　English，　French，　Swedish，　and　Portuguese　settlements　were　established．
2．　America　in　the　Colonial　Era
The　Mayflower
European　colonists　arrived　at　the　New　World　after　1600．　In　1607，　the　Virginia　Company　of　London　established　the　Jamestown　Settlement　on　the　James　River，　and　it　was　the　first　successful　English　colony　in　North　America．　In　1620，　a　group　of　Puritans，　who　were　later　called　the　Pilgrim　Fathers，　sailed　for　Virginia　on　a　ship　called　the　Mayflower．　They　had　been　persecuted　in　Britain，　because　they　refused　to　abide　by　the　rules　of　the　Church　of　England，　and　they　went　to　the　New　World　in　search　of　religious　freedom．　They　finally　landed　in　what　is　now　Plymouth，　Massachusetts．　By　1679　they　had　set　up　four　New　England　colonies．　Spain　controlled　a　large　part　of　what　is　now　the　central　and　western　U．S．．　In　1682，　French　explorer，　Sieur　de　La　Salle，　discovered　the　Ohio　and　Mississippi　valleys，　and　claimed　the　entire　territory　as　far　south　as　the　Gulf　of　Mexico．　By　the　1770s，　13　British　colonies　contained　2.5　million　people．　They　were　prosperous　and　growing　rapidly，　and　had　developed　their　own　autonomous　political　and　legal　systems．
3．　Formation　of　the　United　States
Soon　afterwards，　the　contradiction　between　Britain　and　her　13　colonies　became　acute．　Britain　imposed　new　taxes　partly　in　order　to　defray　the　cost　of　fighting　in　the　Seven　Years　War［5］，　and　expected　Americans　to　lodge　British　soldiers　in　their　homes．　The　colonists　resented　the　taxes　and　resisted　the　quartering　of　soldiers．　Some　colonies　such　as　Massachusetts　began　to　make　preparations　for　war　with　Britain．
The　Boston　Tea　Party　in　1773　was　often　seen　as　the　event　which　started　the　American　Revolution．　The　first　continental　congress　was　held　in　Philadelphia　in　September，　1774．　The　Battles　of　Lexington　and　Concord　in　April，　1775，　were　the　first　military　engagements　of　the　American　Revolutionary　War．　The　battles　marked　the　outbreak　of　open　armed　conflict　between　Britain　and　its　13　colonies　in　the　mainland　of　British　North　America．　On　July　4，　1776，　the　Second　Continental　Congress　meeting　in　Philadelphia　declared　the　independence　of　the　U．S．　in　a　remarkable　document，　the　Declaration　of　Independence，　primarily　authored　by　Thomas　Jefferson．
The　Declaration　of　Independence
Finally　the　U．S．　won　its　independence　from　Britain　with　the　help　of　France　in　the　American　War　of　Independence，　and　the　Declaration　of　Independence　rejected　British　authority　in　favor　of　selfdetermination．　During　and　after　the　war，　the　13　states　were　united　under　a　weak　federal　government　established　by　the　Articles　of　Confederation［6］．　The　structure　of　the　government　was　profoundly　changed　on　March　4，　1789，　when　the　states　replaced　the　Articles　of　Confederation　with　the　U．S．　Constitution．　The　new　government　reflected　a　radical　break　from　the　normative　governmental　structures　of　the　time，　favoring　representative，　elective　government，　rather　than　the　existing　monarchial　structures　common　within　the　western　traditions　of　the　time．
4．　Westward　Expansion
Westward　expansion　is　the　history　of　U．S．　territorial　acquisitions．　In　1783，　the　Treaty　of　Paris　with　Britain　defined　the　original　borders　of　the　U．S．．　The　Louisiana　Purchase，　in　1803，　gave　western　farmers　use　of　the　important　Mississippi　River　waterway，　removed　the　French　presence　from　the　western　border　of　the　U．S．，　and　provided　U．S．　settlers　with　vast　potential　of　expansion．
Westward　Expansion
The　Monroe　Doctrine　in　1823，　proclaimed　that　European　powers　should　no　longer　colonize　or　interfere　in　the　Americas，　but　it　was　later　extended　to　justify　U．S．　imperialism　in　the　Western　Hemisphere，　and　it　was　an　important　symbol　of　American　expansionism．　In　1830，　Congress　passed　the　Indian　Removal　Act，　which　authorized　the　president　to　negotiate　treaties　that　exchanged　Indian　tribal　lands　in　the　eastern　states　for　lands　west　of　the　Mississippi　River．
In　the　1840s，　western　expansion　proceeded　at　a　rapid　pace．　Promises　of　wideopen　spaces　and　inexpensive　land　with　rich　soil　enticed　many　people　in　the　east　to　pack　up　their　possessions　and　head　west．　The　1840s　became　a　decade　of　rapid　territorial　acquisition　and　expansion．　Americans　streamed　into　Texas，　settled　there，　formed　an　independent　republic，　and　asked　that　Texas　become　part　of　the　U．S．，　but　Mexico　refused　to　accept　the　annexation　of　Texas，　which　led　to　MexicanUS　War　（18461848）．　California，　New　Mexico　and　adjacent　areas　were　ceded　to　the　U．S．　under　the　1848　Treaty　of　Cuadalupe　Hidalgo．
Through　the　westward　expansion，　the　U．S．　expanded　from　the　Atlantic　Coast　to　the　Pacific　Coast，　and　it　became　one　of　the　most　powerful　nations　in　the　20th　century．　However，　this　expansion　also　resulted　in　great　suffering，　destruction，　and　cultural　loss　to　the　Native　Americans．
5．　Civil　War　Era
The　Civil　War　was　from　1861　to　1865．　Abraham　Lincoln　was　elected　president，　the　South　seceded　to　form　the　Confederate　States　of　America，　and　the　Civil　War　followed，　with　the　ultimate　defeat　of　the　South．
The　Civil　War　began　when　Confederate　Army　opened　fire　upon　Fort　Sumter．　They　fired　because　Fort　Sumter　was　in　a　confederate　state．　After　four　years　of　bloody　combat　that　left　over　600，000　soldiers　dead　and　destroyed　much　of　the　Souths　infrastructure，　the　Confederacy　collapsed，　slavery　was　abolished，　and　the　difficult　reconstruction　process　of　restoring　national　unity　and　guaranteeing　rights　to　the　freed　slaves　began．　In　the　Reconstruction　era　（18631877），　the　U．S．　ended　slavery　and　extended　legal　and　voting　rights　to　the　Freedmen．
6．　America　Before　and　During　World　War　Ⅰ
After　its　civil　war，　America　experienced　an　accelerated　rate　of　industrialization，　mainly　in　the　northern　states．　Machinery　steadily　replaced　the　use　of　hand　labor；　railway　extended　from　coast　to　coast；　ships　were　built．　Transportation　and　communications　were　greatly　improved　to　meet　the　needs　of　an　industrial　society．　By　1894，　America　had　become　the　world　leading　industrial　country．
The　U．S．　began　its　rise　to　international　power　in　this　period　with　substantial　population　and　industrial　growth　domestically，　and　a　number　of　military　ventures　abroad．　The　USSpanish　War　was　the　first　imperialist　war　for　redividing　the　world，　and　it　marked　a　new　stage　in　which　the　U．S．　transformed　into　an　imperialist　power．
At　the　outbreak　of　World　War　Ⅰ　in　1914，　the　U．S．　pursued　a　policy　of　nonintervention．　As　the　war　went　on，　Germany　announced　that　submarines　were　to　be　used　to　sink　all　ships，　including　neutral　ones，　going　to　Britain，　which　would　greatly　harm　the　American　trade．　Besides，　the　Germans　attempted　to　interest　Mexico　in　going　to　war　as　Germanys　ally　against　the　U．S．，　and　Britain　intercepted　the　message　and　presented　it　to　the　U．S．　embassy　in　Britain．　After　the　sinking　of　several　U．S．　merchant　ships　by　submarines　and　the　publication　of　the　Zimmerman　telegram［7］，　the　U．S．　declared　war　against　Germany　on　6　April　1917．　In　1918，　Wilson　implemented　a　set　of　propositions　titled　the　Fourteen　Points　to　ensure　peace，　but　they　were　denied　at　the　1919　Paris　Peace　Conference．　Isolationist　sentiment　following　the　war　also　blocked　the　U．S．　from　participating　in　the　League　of　Nations，　an　important　part　of　the　Treaty　of　Versailles．
7．　America　Before　and　During　World　War　Ⅱ
Between　World　War　I　and　World　War　Ⅱ，　there　were　two　decades—the　1920s　and　1930s．　The　1920s　was　noted　for　the　socalled　prosperity，　while　the　1930s　was　characterized　by　the　Great　Depression　and　the　New　Deal．　During　most　of　the　1920s，　the　U．S．　enjoyed　a　period　of　unbalanced　prosperity，　and　the　boom　was　fueled　by　an　inflated　stock　market，　which　later　led　to　the　Great　Depression．　The　first　outward　sign　of　the　depression　was　the　collapse　of　the　stock　market　in　October　1929，　followed　by　the　closing　of　thousands　of　plants　and　banks．　Franklin　Roosevelts　New　Deal　program　had　some　initial　remedial　effect，　but　it　failed　to　produce　recovery　and　solve　the　problem　of　unemployment．　The　crisis　continued　to　deepen　until　a　change　was　brought　about　by　the　outbreak　of　World　War　Ⅱ．
The　U．S．　didnt　enter　World　War　Ⅱ　until　after　the　rest　of　the　active　allied　countries　had　done　so，　and　its　first　contribution　to　the　war　was　simultaneously　to　cut　off　the　oil　and　raw　material　supplies　needed　by　Japan　to　maintain　its　offensive　in　China．
On　December　7，　1941，　the　Japanese　attacked　Pearl　Harbor　killing　over　2，000　people　and　damaging　or　destroying　eight　battleships，　greatly　harming　the　Pacific　fleet．　The　following　day，　Roosevelt　successfully　urged　a　joint　session　of　Congress　to　declare　war　against　Japan．　After　that，　Germany　and　Italy　declared　war　against　the　U．S．，　and　America　had　to　fight　on　two　fronts:　Europe　and　the　Pacific．　The　U．S．　did　play　an　important　role　in　the　war　against　fascists．　On　the　other　hand，　however，　it　is　necessary　to　point　out　that　the　U．S．　entered　the　war　mainly　for　its　own　benefits，　which　reveals　the　nature　of　imperialism．
8．　Cold　War　Era
During　World　War　Ⅱ，　the　U．S．　and　the　Soviet　Union　fought　together　as　allies　against　the　Axis　powers．　However，　the　relationship　between　the　two　nations　was　tense．　Americans　had　long　been　wary　of　Soviet　communism．　For　their　part，　the　Soviets　resented　the　Americans　decadeslong　refusal　to　treat　the　USSR　（Union　of　Soviet　Socialist　Republics）　as　a　legitimate　part　of　the　international　community　as　well　as　their　delayed　entry　into　World　War　Ⅱ．　After　the　war，　these　grievances　ripened　into　an　overwhelming　sense　of　mutual　distrust　and　enmity．　In　a　hostile　atmosphere，　the　U．S．　and　the　Soviet　Union　emerged　as　opposing　superpowers　and　began　the　Cold　War，　confronting　one　another　indirectly　in　the　arms　race　and　space　race．
A　new　policy，　the　Cold　War　policy，　went　into　effect　by　the　spring　of　1947　when　Truman　Doctrine　came　forth．　This　was　a　plan　to　give　money　and　military　aid　to　countries　threatened　by　communism．　A　major　event　in　the　Cold　War　was　the　Berlin　Airlift［8］．　After　World　War　Ⅱ，　the　U．S．　and　its　allies　divided　Germany　into　two　parts:　West　Germany，　controlled　by　the　U．S．　and　East　Germany，　supported　by　the　Soviet　Union．　Then　there　rose　the　Berlin　crisis．
After　World　War　Ⅱ，　the　cold　war　became　the　basis　of　the　American　foreign　policy．　It　fully　revealed　the　ambition　of　the　U．S．　to　gain　the　world　domination．　In　East　and　Southern　Asia，　the　U．S．　tried　hard　to　control　as　many　regions　as　possible　through　military　and　economic　aggression　to　achieve　this　goal．
From　1953　to　1961，　General　Eisenhower　was　in　presidency．　The　Eisenhower　Doctrine　contained　the　points　of　instant　and　massive　retaliation，　avoidance　of　getting　involved　in　frustrating　wars　of　containment．　Crisis　in　Korea，　and　Vietnam　prompted　the　use　of　this　doctrine，　but　with　little　success．　In　Africa，　the　U．S．　took　the　advantage　of　the　weakening　old　colonial　powers　and　the　national　liberation　struggles　for　independence　in　those　countries　to　intervene　in　their　affairs　by　means　of　economic　aid．　The　American　relation　with　the　Latin　American　countries　was　deteriorating，　and　the　Latin　American　countries　were　getting　more　disenchanted　with　the　U．S．．
The　Vietnam　War
On　January　20th，　1969，　Richard　Nixon　took　the　oath　of　office　as　president．　He　gave　priority　to　foreign　affairs　and　significantly　redirected　U．S．　policies．　Nixon　continued　to　bomb　on　a　large　scale　many　cities　in　North　Vietnam　and　in　April　1970，　he　cast　American　troops　into　Cambodia，　escalating　the　aggressive　war．　A　negotiated　peace　settlement　finally　came　in　January　1973　through　a　long　time　bargaining．　Two　months　later，　the　last　American　left　Vietnam　and　the　longlasting　Vietnam　War　ended．　The　Vietnam　War　was　a　longtime　suffering　for　the　U．S．.　The　war　started　under　Eisenhower　and　was　continued　by　Kennedy　and　Johnson．　The　war　greatly　weakened　the　U．S．　imperialism　and　sharpened　the　countrys　internal　contradictions．　Relations　between　East　and　West　also　improved　when　Richard　Nixon　was　president．　Besides，　it　is　President　Nixon　who　moved　toward　improving　relations　with　China，　and　the　“pingpong　diplomacy”　helped　normalize　the　relations　between　the　two　countries．
Ronald　Reagan　（Right）　and
Gorbachev　（Left）
A　major　change　in　the　Cold　War　took　place　in　1985，　when　Mikhail　Gorbachev　became　leader　of　the　Soviet　Union．　He　met　four　times　with　President　Ronald　Reagan，　and　he　withdrew　Soviet　forces　from　Afghanistan，　and　signed　an　agreement　with　the　U．S．　to　destroy　all　middledistance　and　shortdistance　nuclear　missiles．　The　Cold　War　ended　when　the　Soviet　Union　dissolved　in　1991．
9．　The　U．S．　after　the　Cold　War
After　the　fall　of　the　Soviet　Union，the　U．S．　emerged　as　the　worlds　sole　remaining　superpower　and　continued　to　involve　itself　in　military　action　overseas．　Following　the　election　of　Bill　Clinton　in　1992，　the　1990s　saw　one　of　the　longest　periods　of　economic　expansion．
As　the　21st　century　began，　international　conflicts　centered　on　the　Middle　East　and　were　heightened　significantly　following　the　September　11　attacks　and　the　War　on　Terrorism　that　was　subsequently　declared．　On　September　11，　2001，　the　U．S．　was　struck　by　a　terrorist　attack　when　19　alQaeda　hijackers　commandeered　four　airliners　and　intentionally　crashed　into　both　twin　towers　of　the　World　Trade　Center　and　into　the　Pentagon，　killing　nearly　3，000　people，　mostly　civilians．　On　October　7，　2001，　the　U．S．　and　NATO　then　invaded　Afghanistan　to　oust　the　Taliban　regime，　which　had　provided　safe　haven　to　alQaeda　and　its　leader　Osama　bin　Laden．
In　2003，　the　U．S．　launched　an　invasion　of　Iraq，　which　led　to　the　collapse　of　the　Iraqi　government　and　the　eventual　capture　of　Iraqi　dictator　Saddam　Hussein．
In　December　2007，　the　U．S．　entered　the　longest　postWorld　War　Ⅱ　recession，　Major　problems　included　the　housing　market　crisis，　subprime　mortgage　crisis，　soaring　oil　prices，　automotive　industry　crisis，　rising　unemployment，　and　the　worst　financial　crisis．
Barack　Obama
In　2008，　the　unpopularity　of　President　Bush　and　the　Iraq　war，　along　with　the　2008　financial　crisis，　led　to　the　election　of　Barack　Obama，　the　first　African　American　President　of　the　U．S．．　As　president，　Obama　officially　ended　combat　operations　in　Iraq　on　August　31，　2010．　At　the　same　time，　Obama　increased　American　involvement　in　Afghanistan，　starting　a　surge　strategy　using　an　additional　30，000　troops．　In　May　2011，　after　nearly　a　decades　hiding，　the　founder　and　leader　of　Al　Qaeda　Osama　bin　Laden　was　killed　in　Pakistan　in　a　raid　conducted　by　U．S．　naval　special　forces　under　President　Obamas　direct　orders．　In　2012，　President　Obama　was　reelected　in　November　with　the　help　of　a　similar　voter　coalition　as　in　2008．
Section　CHistory　of　China
China　is　a　country　with　a　long　and　rich　history　and　ancient　civilization．　Anthropologists　have　uncovered　the　remains　of　Chinas　earliest　discovered　anthropoid，　“Yuanmou　Man”，　who　lived　in　Yunnan　Province　approximately　1．7　million　years　ago．　“Peking　Man”，　who　lived　in　Zhoukoudian，　to　the　southwest　of　modern　Peking，　400，000500，000　years　ago，　could　walk　upright，　make　and　use　simple　tools，　and　knew　how　to　make　fire．　The　Neolithic　Age　started　in　China　about　10，000　years　ago，　and　relics　from　this　period　can　be　found　all　over　the　country．　Artificially　grown　rice　and　millet　as　well　as　farming　tools　have　been　found　in　the　remains　of　Hemudu　in　Yuyao，　Zhejiang　Province，　and　Banpo，　near　Xian　City，　shaanxi　Province，　respectively．　These　relics　date　back　some　6，0007，000　years．
1．　Ancient　times　（from　antiquity　to　1840　A．D．）
The　history　of　China　can　date　back　to　as　early　as　4000　B．C．.　Chinese　civilization　began　with　the　legendary　sageemperors　Huang　Di　and　Yan　Di　in　the　area　of　the　Yellow　River　Basin．　After　centuries，　the　two　tribes　gradually　merged　into　one　by　the　time　of　the　Xia　Dynasty．　Chinese　people，　usually　regard　themselves　as　“the　descendants　of　Yan　and　Huang”．
The　Xia　Dynasty　（2070　B．C．　1600　B．C．）
Chinese　generally　tell　the　history　from　Xia　Dynasty，　which　was　founded　in　2070　B．C．.　The　center　of　its　activities　was　the　western　section　of　modern　Henan　Province　and　the　southern　section　of　modern　Shanxi　Province，　and　its　sphere　of　influence　reached　the　northern　and　southern　areas　of　the　Yellow　River．　With　the　Xia　Dynasty，　China　entered　slave　society．　People　were　agrarian，　and　they　were　familiar　with　the　phenomena　of　seasonal　changes　and　arranged　their　farm　activities　according　to　the　alterations　of　the　seasons．
Oracle
The　Shang　Dynasty　（1600　B．C．　1046　B．C．）
The　Shang　Dynasty　controlled　the　central　part　of　China，　extending　over　much　of　modern　Henan，　Hubei，　Shangdong，　Anhui，　Shanxi，　and　Hebei　provinces．　The　Shang　enjoyed　the　most　advanced　bronze　civilization　in　the　world，　and　the　development　of　a　writing　system　can　be　witnessed　on　the　oracles　like　tortoise　shell　or　animal　bones，　and　these　writings　were　the　beginning　of　the　written　Chinese　language．
The　Zhou　Dynasty　（1046　B．C．　221　B．C．）
The　Zhou　Dynasty　reigned　for　the　longest　period　of　all　Chinese　dynasties．　The　Zhou　Dynasty　fell　into　several　subperiods:　the　Western　Zhou　（1046　B．C．　770　B．C．），　the　Eastern　Zhou　which　was　further　divided　into　the　Spring　and　Autumn　Period　（770　B．C．　476　B．C．）　and　the　Warring　States　Period　（475　B．C．　221　B．C．）．　The　Zhou　Dynasty　was　a　turning　point　in　Chinese　history　for　it　evolved　into　feudal　system，　and　witnessed　the　territorial　expansion，　economic　prosperity　and　cultural　flourishing．　During　this　period，　philosophy　and　other　branches　of　scholarship　were　unprecedentedly　thriving，　with　the　rise　of　Confucianism，　Daoism　and　the　development　of　Chinese　philosophy．　Famous　philosophers，　Laozi，　Confucius，　Mencius，　Mozi，　Zhuangzi，　Han　Feizi，　Xunzi，　Sunzi，　etc．，　made　huge　impact　on　Chinese　culture．　The　Spring　and　Autumn　and　Warring　States　periods　are　famous　for　the　cultural　prosperity　with　“Hundred　Schools　of　Thought”．　During　this　era，　many　poets　voiced　their　opinions　of　criticism　and　emotions，　many　of　which　were　preserved　in　“the　Book　of　Songs”，　the　first　important　work　of　literature　in　Chinese　history．
The　Qin　Dynasty　（221　B．C．　207　B．C．）
The　Great　Wall
Ying　Zheng，　a　man　of　great　talent　and　bold　vision，　established　the　first　centralized，　unified，　multiethnic　feudal　state　in　Chinese　history—the　Qin　Dynasty，　and　called　himself　Shi　Huang　Di　（the　first　Emperor），　historically　known　as　Qin　Shi　Huang．　During　his　reign，　he　standardized　the　written　script，　currencies，　weights　and　measures；　many　constructive　public　projects　were　undertaken；　roads　and　irrigation　canals　were　built　throughout　the　country．　On　the　other　hand，　he　executed　many　of　his　opponents　and　burned　the　books　written　before　the　Qin　Dynasty　to　wipe　out　ideas　which　conflicted　with　the　Emperor．　He　had　worked　on　his　enormous　mausoleum　started　early　in　his　reign．　The　terracotta　warriors　of　the　“underground　army”　guarding　the　mausoleum，　unearthed　in　1974，　amazed　the　world．　The　8，000　vivid，　lifesize　pottery　figures，　horses　and　chariots　have　been　called　“the　eighth　wonder　of　the　world”．　The　Qin　Dynasty　was　wellknown　for　beginning　the　construction　of　the　Great　Wall　which　was　later　augmented　and　enhanced　during　the　Ming　Dynasty．　The　Qin　Dynasty　marks　the　beginning　of　a　more　than　2，000　years　long　history　of　a　centralized　state　with　an　emperor　being　the　head　of　a　state　and　a　comparatively　uniformed　culture．
The　Han　Dynasty　（206　B．C．　220　A．D．）
At　the　end　of　the　Qin　Dynasty，　Liu　Bang，　a　peasant　leader，　overthrew　the　Qin　regime　in　cooperation　with　Xiang　Yu．　A　few　years　later，　Liu　Bang　defeated　Xiang　Yu　and　established　the　Han　Dynasty．　The　Han　Dynasty　fell　into　three　periods:　Western　Han　（206　B．C．　8　A．D．），　Wang　Mangs　Xin　Dynasty　（8　A．D．　23　A．D．），　and　Eastern　Han　（25　A．D．　220　A．D．）．　During　Emperor　Wudis　reign，　the　most　prosperous　period　of　the　Han　Dynasty，　the　territory　of　the　empire　was　expanded　from　the　Central　Plain　to　the　Western　Regions　（presentday　Xinjiang　and　Central　Asia）．　Emperor　Wudi　dispatched　Zhang　Qian　twice　as　his　envoy　to　the　Western　Regions，　and　in　the　process　a　trade　route　was　forged　known　as　“the　Silk　Road”　from　Changan　（todays　Xian，　Shanxi　Province），　through　Xinjiang　and　Central　Asia，　and　on　to　the　east　coast　of　the　Mediterranean　Sea．　As　contacts　between　the　East　and　West　increased，　Buddhism　spread　to　China　in　the　first　century．
In　Han　Dynasty，　science　and　technology　made　remarkable　achievements．　Paper，　the　compass，　and　the　seismograph　were　invented，　steel　was　manufactured，　and　advances　in　medicine，　astronomy，　and　cartography　were　also　noteworthy　in　history．　The　Han　regime　existed　for　a　total　of　426　years　and　its　agriculture，　handicrafts　and　commerce　were　well　developed．
Three　Kingdoms　（220265），　Jin　（265420），　Southern　and　Northern
Dynasty　（420589）
The　collapse　of　the　Han　Dynasty　was　followed　by　the　Three　Kingdoms　Period　of　Wei，　Shu　and　Wu．　Continuous　wars　among　the　three　states　developed　various　wise　political　and　military　thoughts，　and　produced　talented　persons，　such　as　Zhuge　Liang，　Cao　Cao，　etc．，　who　demonstrated　their　special　ability　not　only　in　military　and　political　affairs　but　also　in　literature．
The　Three　Kingdoms　was　followed　by　the　Western　Jin　with　Luoyang　as　its　capital　city，　and　Eastern　Jin　with　Jiankang　（Nanjing）　as　its　capital　city．　The　Jin　Dynasty　did　not　last　long　with　a　lot　of　confrontations　and　conflicts．
After　the　Jin　Dynasty，　the　Southern　and　Northern　Dynasty　appeared，　and　it　was　an　age　of　civil　war　and　political　disunity．　On　the　other　hand，　it　was　an　era　of　the　quick　and　wide　spread　of　Buddhism，　and　the　flourishing　in　poetry，　music，　calligraphy，　painting　with　representatives　like　the　great　calligrapher　Wang　Xizhi　and　the　outstanding　painter　Gu　Kaizhi．　It　also　enjoyed　the　great　advancement　in　technology．　For　instance，　Zu　Chongzhi　introduced　the　approximation　to　π　which　is　correct　to　7　decimal　places，　and　made　unique　contribution　to　mathematics．
The　Sui　Dynasty　（581618）
China　was　reunified　by　the　Sui　Dynasty　founded　by　Emperor　Sui　Wendi．　The　Sui　Dynasty　was　shortlived，　lasting　for　38　years．　However，　the　social　economy　in　this　period　underwent　rapid　recovery　and　development；　the　system　of　“Three　Departments　and　Six　Ministries”　was　set　up　to　strengthen　the　central　authorities；　the　privilege　of　the　noble　families　was　abolished；　the　Imperial　Examination　System　for　the　selection　and　appointment　of　civil　servants　was　adopted，　which　was　later　used　for　over　1，300　years．　Besides，　the　Sui　Dynasty　witnessed　various　reforms　and　achievements　such　as　the　construction　of　engineering　feats　like　the　Grand　Canal　from　Beijing　to　Hangzhou　and　Zhaozhou　Bridge．　Confucianism　began　to　regain　popularity，　and　Buddhism　was　further　spread　and　encouraged　throughout　the　empire　to　reunite　the　people　of　different　regions．
The　Tang　Dynasty　（618907）
Li　Yuan　founded　the　Tang　Dynasty　with　its　capital　at　Changan．　Li　Shimin，　or　Emperor　Taizong，　the　son　of　Li　Yuan，　was　one　of　the　greatest　emperors　in　Chinese　history．　He　adopted　a　series　of　policies　known　as　the　Zhenguan　reign　period　reforms，　pushing　the　prosperity　of　Chinas　feudal　society　to　its　peak．Emperor　Taizong
The　boundaries　of　China　were　extended　to　Siberia　in　the　North，　Korea　peninsula　in　the　east，　Vietnam　in　the　south，　and　west　in　Aral　Sea　in　midAsia．　At　that　time，　China　ranked　among　the　most　advanced　countries　in　the　world．
During　the　Tang　Dynasty，　Buddhism　flourished　and　gradually　became　localized　as　an　important　part　of　Chinese　traditional　culture．　A　Buddhist　monk　Xuan　Zang　traveled　from　Changan　through　Gansu，　Xinjiang　and　central　Asia　to　India　for　the　furtherance　of　Buddhist　classics．　It　was　also　the　golden　age　of　literature　and　art，　which　produced　the　most　brilliant　poetry　of　the　country．　The　bestknown　poets　in　the　Tang　Dynasty　were　Li　Bai，　Du　Fu　and　Bai　Juyi．
The　“An　Lushan　and　Shi　Siming　Rebellion”　brought　about　the　political　disturbance　and　weakened　the　empire，　and　began　to　push　the　mighty　Tang　Dynasty　to　an　end．　After　the　Tang　Dynasty，　there　came　the　Five　Dynasty　and　Ten　Kindoms　（907960）．
The　Song　Dynasty　（9601279）
Zhao　Kuangyin，　General　of　the　Later　Zhou　Dynasty，　rose　in　mutiny　and　founded　the　Song　Dynasty．　It　was　divided　into　two　phases:　Northern　Song　and　Southern　Song．　During　the　Song　Dynasty，　agriculture，　handicraft　industry，　shipbuilding　industry　and　commerce　flourished，　and　science　and　technology　made　impressive　advancements．　There　was　a　great　development　in　calligraphy，　painting，　sculpture　and　weaving　art；　achievements　in　porcelain　manufacture　surpassed　all　previous　dynasties；　gunpowder　were　widely　used　for　military　purposes；　the　compass　was　employed　for　navigation；　and　the　invention　of　movable　printing　by　Bi　Sheng　was　a　great　revolution　in　printing　history．　Song　poetry　was　a　new　and　popular　literary　form，　and　there　were　many　famous　poets　at　that　time，　such　as　Su　Shi，　Xin　Qiji，　Li　Qingzhao，　etc．.　Shen　Kuos　“Dream　Pool　Essays”　covers　many　fields　like　astronomy，　physics，　chemistry，　geology，　medicine　and　so　on．　The　Song　Dynasty　was　considered　to　be　another　period　of　prime　time　in　Chinese　history　after　the　glorious　Genghis　Khan
Tang　Dynasty．
The　Yuan　Dynasty　（12711368）
In　1206，　Genghis　Khan　unified　all　the　tribes　in　Mongolia．　Later，　his　grandson　Kublai　Khan　founded　the　Yuan　Dynasty　in　1271　and　made　Dadu　（Beijing）　the　capital．　Due　to　the　reunification，　the　economy，　science　and　culture　were　boosted，　and　contacts　and　communications　with　foreign　nations　were　also　increased．　For　instance，　Marco　Polos　trip　to　China　aroused　the　interest　and　awe　of　the　world．　A　new　kind　of　literature　form　Yuan　Drama　emerged，　and　the　most　influential　works　are　Wang　Shifus　Romance　of　the　Western　Chamber　and　Guan　Hanqings　Dou　E　Yuan．　The　Yuan　Drama　was　one　of　the　greatest　Chinese　literary　heritages．
The　Ming　Dynasty　（13681644）
Zheng　He
In　1368，　Zhu　Yuanzhang，　a　peasant　uprising　leader，　founded　the　Ming　Dynasty　in　Nanjing．　In　1421，　his　son　Zhu　Di　officially　made　Beijing　the　capital．　In　1644，　the　Ming　Dynasty　was　overthrown　by　the　peasant　armies　led　by　Li　Zicheng．　In　Ming　Dynasty，　many　enormous　constructive　projects　were　undertaken，　such　as　the　restoration　of　the　Grand　Canal　and　the　Great　Wall，　and　the　establishment　of　the　Forbidden　City　in　Beijing．　With　the　growth　of　shipbuilding　industry　and　the　navigation　technology，　a　eunuch　named　Zheng　He　led　a　fleet　of　many　ships　to　make　seven　farranging　voyages．　Passing　the　Southeast　Asian　countries，　the　Indian　Ocean，　Persian　Gulf　and　Maldives　Islands，　Zheng　He　explored　as　far　as　Somalia　and　Kenya　on　the　eastern　coast　of　Africa．　These　were　the　largestscale　and　longest　voyages　in　the　world　before　the　age　of　Columbus．　The　literature　in　Ming　Dynasty　was　also　noticeable．　There　were　many　classic　fictional　novels，　such　as　The　Romance　of　the　Three　Kingdoms，　Water　Margin，　Pilgrim　to　the　West，　and　The　Golden　Lotus．　Besides，　The　Peony　Pavilion　written　by　the　famous　playwright　Tang　Xianzu　was　one　of　the　most　famous　plays　in　Chinese　history．
The　Qing　Dynasty　（16441911）
In　the　late　Ming　Dynasty，　the　Manchus　in　northern　China　grew　in　strength　and　invaded　the　central　plain　for　three　generations　in　succession．　Finally　the　Qing　Dynasty　was　founded．　The　two　most　famous　emperors　of　this　period　were　Emperor　Kang　Xi　and　Emperor　Qian　Long，　and　the　Qing　Dynasty　reached　its　peak　during　their　reigns，　which　was　known　as　the　“times　of　prosperity”（Kang　Qian　Sheng　Shi）．　Its　territory　was　extensive；　economy　and　commerce　developed；　culture　of　various　forms　thrived．　However，　the　late　years　of　the　Qing　Dynasty　began　to　decline　with　the　massive　social　strife，　economic　stagnation，　and　western　penetration　and　invasion．　After　the　Opium　War，　the　Qing　court　was　confronted　with　crisis　both　at　home　and　abroad．
The　Revolution　of　1911
2．　Modern　Period　（18401919）
The　Opium　Wars　lasted　from　1840　to　1842　and　1856　to　1860　respectively．　From　then　on，　China　was　reduced　to　a　semicolonial　and　semifeudal　country．　After　the　Opium　Wars，　the　Qing　court　succumbed　to　the　west　invaders，　and　humiliatingly　signed　the　unequal　treaties，　which　brought　about　the　tragic　consequences　for　the　development　of　China．　To　oppose　feudal　oppression　and　foreign　aggression，　the　Chinese　people　waged　heroic　struggles．　The　Revolution　of　1911，　a　bourgeoisdemocratic　revolution　led　by　Sun　Yatsen，　ended　the　rule　of　the　Qing　Dynasty．　The　revolution　was　of　great　significance　in　modern　Chinese　history．　The　monarchical　system　that　had　been　in　place　in　China　for　more　than　2，000　years　was　discarded　with　the　founding　of　the　provisional　government　of　the　Republic　of　China．　But　the　fruits　of　victory　were　soon　compromised　by　concessions　on　the　part　of　the　Chinese　bourgeoisie，　and　the　country　entered　a　period　of　domination　by　the　Northern　Warlords　headed　by　Yuan　Shihkai．
3．　New　Democratic　Revolution　Period　（19191949）
Under　the　influence　of　the　October　Revolution　in　Russia，　Chinas　May　4th　Movement　broke　out．　It　was　an　antiimperialism　and　antifeudalism　movement，　and　it　brought　out　a　drastic　change　in　Chinese　society．　In　1921，　the　Communist　Party　of　China　（CPC）　was　founded．　In　1924，　Sun　Yatsen　worked　together　with　the　CPC　to　organize　workers　and　peasants　for　the　Northern　Expedition．　After　Sun　Yatsen　passed　away，　Chiang　Kaishek　founded　the　Kuomintang　regime　in　Nanjing，　and　in　1927　Chiang　began　to　relentlessly　chase　the　CPC　armies　and　leaders　from　their　bases　in　southern　and　eastern　China．　In　1934，　the　CPC　forces　were　compelled　to　start　the　tough　Long　March　across　Chinas　most　desolate　terrain　to　the　northwest，　where　they　established　a　guerrilla　base　at　Yanan　in　shaanxi　Province．　During　the　Long　March，　the　communists　reorganized　under　a　new　leader，　Mao　Zedong．　In　July　1937，　Japan　launched　the　allout　aggression　against　China．　In　August　1945，　Chinese　people　won　the　victory　of　the　War　of　Resistance　against　Japan．　From　June　1946，　the　Kuomintang　launched　an　allround　attack　on　the　Liberated　Areas　led　by　the　CPC，　and　an　unprecedented　largescale　civil　war　started．　Three　years　later，　the　CPC　overthrew　the　rule　of　the　Kuomintang　and　won　a　great　victory　in　the　new　democratic　revolution　in　1949．
The　Grand　Ceremony　Inaugurating
the　Peoples　Republic　of　China